Part 4. Psycholinguistic characteristics of the text as a universal sign of language and means of speech communication

The text as a complex semantic-syntactic education has a number of psycholinguistic characteristics. These include integrity (semantic, structural and compositional integrity), as well as semantic and grammatical connectivity of speech. In addition, the text, considered as a product of speech activity, shows traces of non-verbal behavior of the participants of communication, and it has a large degree of “interpretability” (interpretation options for the semantic content of the listener or reader).

When analyzing speech activity (RD) as a process of speech communication, the subject of analysis in psycholinguistics most often is a statement that, being a unit of speech communication, is always correlated in the RD with the displayed situation both “socially” and psychologically (“emotively” and “expressive”) oriented on the participants of speech communication. Speech communication in most cases is based on the use of non-individual words or phrases; The basic unit of communication is detailed statements, the language form of expression of which is the text. Language signs used in speech (words, phrases) manifest their basic properties only being “text-related”, they can make sense [102] only as units connected into a single speech message, i.e., when they form texts and transmit their content (64, 69, 165, etc.). In other words, if we want to understand the exact meaning of a given word and how it relates to the denotation displayed in speech, [103] it is necessary to take into account that words are spoken in speech sentences (and through them in texts) and that in addition, they are included in the “context” of the displayed situation. At the same time, the semantics of words in the text (their meaning and meaning) may differ significantly from the semantics of isolated words, since only in the expanded statement the word gets its “real” meaning and understanding.

In this regard, psycholinguistics appeal to the semantics of the text when analyzing the process of speech communication is objective and natural, since speech communication is based on "multi-channel" communication and complex interaction of language units in the process of their functioning in speech activity (4, 86, 165, etc.). Therefore, when determining the content-content of linguistic units of one level, reference to units of a higher level is required. The text is in this case the marginal (highest) unit of communication at the sign level. All this makes it necessary, when determining the semantics (semantic, substantive aspect) of speech, to always analyze its “text continuum”.

In addition, for the special interest shown by psycholinguists to the text, of course, there is an interest in the problems of language consciousness. At the same time, language psychology is understood in Russian psycholinguistics as “the internal process of planning and regulating external activities with the help of language signs” (18, p. 109; 60, etc.). Behind the interest in linguistic signs, and first of all in the text, there is an interest in the linguistic personality and the image of the world in the human mind, because in every text (both author and retelling) there is a linguistic personality, an individual who owns the system of this language.

In modern linguistics [104] and psycholinguistics there are various versions of text definitions. One of the most accurate and informative linguistic definitions of the text belongs to the well-known Russian philologist I.R. Halperin (1974): “A text is a work of speech making, possessing completeness, a work objectified in the form of a written document, consisting of a title (title) and a number of special units (super-expressive unities), [105] united by various types of lexical, grammatical, logical, a stylistic connection that has a specific orientation and a pragmatic attitude ”(48, p. 54). In this definition of the text, such qualities as integrity, coherence of its constituent elements and functional orientation are noted.

According to A.A. Leontiev (128, 133, etc.), in the psycholinguistic analysis of speech, its understanding as a means of organizing non-speech (cognitive, social and production) activity of people is essential. The text as the main unit of communication is included in relations between people, it organizes, “structures” their activity, regulates social relations between subjects of speech activity. And the communication of different people (“communicants”), in turn, provides a context for individual statements, combined into an entire finished text. It is in communication that the text realizes its main purpose, and it is on the basis of communication that it can be understood and interpreted adequately to the intention of the author of a speech message.

In the event that the recipient (listener, reader) is not included in a non-speech activity, [106] which the text represents (or “structures”), the speaker or writer should give a much more detailed description of this activity. The “structure of reality” can also be understood as a description of the objective situation by means of language. On the one hand, the text should be sufficiently complete in terms of reflecting non-speech activity preceding its appearance. On the other hand, it can obviously be alienated from this activity (for example, written many years ago), and then it is interpreted only on the basis of its symbolic form (the recipient recipient must himself restore the sequence of events, actions and reasoning of the participants in the activity).

The text may not reflect the real events. Thus, in the artistic text, means of language can depict non-existent worlds, which are the fruit of the author's ideas about reality or combinations of what is in reality incongruous. In this case, the cognitive and emotional structure of the “possible world” presented in the text is subject to the laws of the author's consciousness, including the linguistic consciousness.

To characterize the process of creation (“production”) of text in psycholinguistics, the “model” of the three-phase structure of activity — orientation, execution, control (47, 68, 137, etc.) is most often used. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the text is the most complex language sign, implying a one-time coverage of a sufficiently large number of facts of the surrounding reality and therefore subject to mandatory interpretation (“interpretation”) by the recipient.

The approximate phase of construction (analysis) of the text is an intellectual-cognitive activity in understanding the problem situation of communication and the subject of speech. In the orientation phase, the “producer” (the author of the text) has a communicative intention in the form of a target set and a common intention of the text. This communicative intention (along with social and vital needs) serves as the motive for the production of the text, it largely determines the content and structure of the communicative-cognitive program of the expanded utterance (18, 64, 95, etc.).

Sufficient knowledge by the author of the text (producer) of the subject of speech, its “inclusion” in the displayed situation implies its comprehension, a certain personal interpretation of it (“the author’s position”). In the text, this is manifested in one or another structure of the displayed event, phenomenon, objective situation from the point of view of the author of the text: for example, the presentation of the sequence of events is different than it was in reality; introducing argumentation, commenting on events, etc. Almost always in the text (regardless of its type) in one form or another there are intellectual and emotional author's assessments of the displayed phenomenon or event.

Since the subject of “textual activity” (speech activity in the creation and analysis of text) is primarily information that is united by the speaker’s intent and position, an important place at the stage of determining the text intent is, on the one hand, a thorough analysis of the displayed subject situation and speech communication situation on the other hand, taking into account the “rule” of the optimal semantic fullness of the text, its information non-overloading (18, 165, etc.).

The implementation phase of the text consists in the “language materialization” of the speech message design with the involvement of the sign means necessary for this. For text, specific language means are inter - phrase communication means and “signaling devices ” of its compositional integrity (in particular, the signs-signals of the beginning and end of the text). Since the intent of the text initially exists in the author’s mind, as a rule, in a collapsed, simultaneous form, it may not be completely understood by the author, the same pattern applies as with any statement: “thought is accomplished in a word” (speech) [ 45], it is not only formalized, but also formulated in its final form in the process of implementing a speech statement (93, 95, etc.). The original idea in its semantics, in this connection, often does not completely coincide with the final product of its implementation.

The control phase in the production of the text implies both the “semantic refinement” of the intent of the text (at the planning stage) and the correction of the “verbalization” (verbal expression) of the main idea and subject content of the message. At the same time, the need to ensure thematic and semantic integrity of the text plays a special role, since associative thinking can turn a speech message (text) into a set of externally formally intertwined utterances that do not constitute a single semantic whole (17, 48, 69).

The main properties that determine the integrity of the text (and, accordingly, the coherence of speech utterances) are thematic, semantic and structural unity, compositional construction and grammatical coherence.

Thematic unity implies that all meaningful (“informative”) units of the text should be directly or indirectly connected with its theme, which is a generalized definition of the subject of speech. If the text (for example, the story of a child who does not yet have sufficient skills in monologue speech) includes semantic elements that are not related to his general theme, this leads to a violation of the integrity of the text and the coherence of speech utterance. Inadequate “thematic” inserts violate the logical organization of speech utterances, “lead” the producer away from the main subject of speech and create objective difficulties for the recipient in perception of the content and the main “idea” of the text.

The semantic unity of the text is determined by two main points. The first of these is the presence of a semantic connection between all consecutive, meaningfully completed text fragments (sub-themes, sub-sub-topics, micro-themes, “semantic-syntactic integers” - SCC). A very important installation and evaluation semantic function is performed in the text of the initial and final sentences, which largely determine its overall semantic content. Each sentence, as well as a whole fragment of the text, should be connected by a semantic connection not only with the previous and subsequent, but also with all other (previous and subsequent) separate statements within the framework of the whole text. The second point that determines the semantic unity of the text is its main idea, or the main idea, which, if necessary, can be formulated as a judgment or conclusion and which is like a “semantic quintessence” of a speech message. The main idea of ​​the text is the second “semantic plan” of the expanded speech utterance. In accordance with this, the inclusion in the text of content-semantic elements (for example, microthemes) that do not express the basic idea of ​​the text or even contradict it, leads to a violation of its semantic and structural integrity.

The semantic organization of the text is presented in the theoretical concept of the “hierarchy of semantic predicates” developed by N.I. Zhinkin and his students - I.A. Winter, TM Dridze et al. (69, 81, 95). The model of semantic predication allows to reveal the central (“main idea”, “first order predication”) and “peripheral” (additional, auxiliary) semantic components of the text. Based on this, it is possible to define the concept of “whole text” as text, which, when going from one successive stage of “compression” (“semantic” compression, contraction) to another, deeper, each time retains a semantic identity for the recipient, "Losing" only additional, "optional", less important components.

The structural organization of the text, in turn, is determined by two factors. First, the norms of the compositional construction of the text that were traditionally established during the socio-historical development (they are approximately the same for all people carrying out a taxiway, because they are determined by the laws of logic - in this case, the display logic in the speech of its subject). Secondly, by the peculiarities of the logical-semantic organization of a specific speech utterance, which is determined by the functional-semantic type: narrative-narration, narrative description, report-report, lecture, etc.).

Any relatively expanded text has a three-part compositional structure: the beginning (introduction) - the main part - the ending (conclusion) [65, 95, 141, etc.]. Each of the structural parts of the text performs its semantic function. The introduction performs the function of designating (“nominating”) the subject of speech and preparing the recipient for perception of the main content (message plan) and the basic idea of ​​the speech utterance. In narrative texts, the beginnings, as a rule, contain an exposure - an indication (determination) of the place, time of the displayed event, the main characters of the plot action. The main part is a fairly complete and detailed mapping of the subject of speech (a fragment of the surrounding reality - phenomena, events, etc.), its figurative “projection” in the human mind (taking into account the objective mapping of interdisciplinary connections and relationships - causal, temporal, spatial and others). The ending (conclusion) performs a generalizing-evaluative semantic function. In addition to indicating the completion of a speech message and the consideration of this topic, it can express the author's position (the producer's attitude to the subject of speech) and contain value judgments and conclusions. The absence of any part of the text (first of all, the introduction and ending), as well as their insufficiently complete "semantic development" (incompleteness) leads to a violation of the structural-semantic integrity of the text and the coherence of speech.

Any relatively large volume of text always includes several components, fragments, which in the linguistic theory of the text are called paragraphs. In its content, the paragraph corresponds to a subtheme (which, in turn, from one side or the other, reveals a general theme, characterizes the subject of speech according to one or another parameter, property, quality). The paragraph as a linguistic whole corresponds to super-expressive unity. According to the subtopic subdivision into a series of micro-topics (sub-sub-objects), paragraphs are subdivided into semantic-syntactic integers (SCC). The integrity of the structural organization of the text is determined by the presence of: a) "mandatory" structural elements (defined by the logical-semantic organization of the speech message) and b) the logical sequence of their actualization in the expanded speech statement. The absence in the speech message of any significant structural components of the text (“semantic wells”, as defined by NI Zhinkin) or their incomplete actualization also leads to a violation of speech coherence. It follows from the above that the semantic and structural organizations of the text are closely connected with each other, which finds, in particular, its expression in the psychology- linguistic model “Text-text-text-subtext”, which reflects the structural-semantic organization of the developed speech statement (18, 73, 165 and others).

The objective (full and accurate) reflection in the text of the surrounding reality implies the presence of a text - a fragment of reality displayed in the text. Text is present in the text as a reference to real events or phenomena. Most often, the main goal of a detailed statement is not a “photographic reflection” of a fragment of surrounding reality, but a description of the text in the “semantic perspective” in which it is seen by its author. Based on this, the text is, as a rule, the actual events themselves. In fiction, the text is often (in whole or in part) fictional.

The subtext is hidden (clearly not expressed in the “actual content” of speech utterances) information extracted by the recipient from the text. Возможность выражения в тексте (и извлечения из него) смыслового подтекста становится возможной благодаря ассоциативной связи составляющих его языковых знаков (слов, словосочетаний) и их способности к «аккумулированию», «приращению смыслов» (64, 204 и др.). При этом научная литература (не допускающая «двоякого» толкования текста) подтекстом, как правило, не обладает; информативность научного текста требует строгой определенности в выражении мысли и полноты аргументации (18, 141, 165). Подтекст в художественном тексте основан на принципиальной невозможности текста включить в себя в полной мере личностное отношение автора ко всем отображаемым в речи событиям окружающей действительности. Художественный текст достаточно часто лишь «намекает» на авторскую оценку или же отсылает к тем или иным оценкам. Подтекст развернутого высказывания может быть и не выявлен реципиентом, например в том случае, если он не опознает имеющихся в тексте соответствующих языковых сигналов (речевые обороты, фразеологизмы, пословицы и поговорки и др.), как знаков, отсылающих к неявным оценкам автора (17, 31 и др.).

Затекст также может включать второй «семантический план» в виде образа – представления фрагмента (или фрагментов) окружающей действительности, не являющегося предметом данного речевого высказывания, но возникающего в сознании реципиента на основе ассоциативных связей с основной темой («идеей») текста.

Поставив перед собой определенную цель, говорящий или пишущий стремится решить задачи речевой коммуникации самым эффективным способом. Для этого ему необходимо реализовать в тексте общий замысел речевого высказывания, который говорящий может представлять себе и осознавать недостаточно четко. Но такой замысел обязательно должен существовать, поскольку именно он обеспечивает такое важнейшее свойство текста, как его цельность.

В оптимальном варианте осуществления речевой деятельности замысел охватывает текст в целом – от его начала и до конца, он оказывает свое воздействие на все его структурные свойства. Смысловые связи пронизывают не только структуру предложения, но и соединяют отдельные предложения между собой. Тем самым происходит смысловая интеграция последовательных предложений, в основе которой лежит соответствие содержания и языковой формы текста его общему замыслу. Цельность проявляется не только в наличии у отдельных высказываний одного и того же общего предмета речи, но и в грамматическом единообразии текста (95, 141 и др.).

Хотя цельность текста – явление прежде всего «семантическое», можно выделить внешние (языковые и речепроизносительные) признаки целостного текста, языковые и речевые границы его завершенности. В частности, это выражается в наличии в тексте определенных вербальных знаков его начала и конца. К начальным «сигналам» текста относятся его название («Хмурое утро», «Война и мир»), указание на тип документа («Заявление», «Отчет» и т. п.), обращение («Дамы и господа!») и различные «этикетные фразы». В свою очередь знаками-сигналами завершения текста выступают различные речевые формулы («Благодарю за внимание»), подпись автора (например, в конце делового документа) или т. н. метатекстовые указатели финала («Продолжение следует», «Конец фильма»).

Единству и завершенности содержания должна соответствовать структурность текста, то есть определенное начало текста, отчетливая связь с начальным предложением последующих предложений (или ССЦ), соотнесенность частей сложных предложений, а также структурное выражение законченности всего текста при завершении его общей фабулы (48, 59).

Некоторые психолингвисты (6, 64, 81 и др.) предлагают свои универсальные критерии целостности текста. Так, например, считается, что текст является целостным, если его можно «количественно» уменьшить в объеме без ущерба для его основной семантической составляющей (основная идея текста). Смысловая и структурная цельность текста при его «компрессии», сжатии должна сохраняться. Если каждый раз при сокращении текст сохраняет свое «смысловое тождество» с исходным, максимально развернутым вариантом, а пропадают только менее значимые элементы, то такой текст можно определить как цельный.

Несмотря на важное значение таких качеств текста, как его доступность для восприятия любым реципиентом, ясность и четкость языкового выражения мысли, основным параметром, определяющим целостность текста, является соответствие его логико-смысловой организации требованиям, предъявляемым к речевой коммуникации (в данном социуме применительно к той или иной конкретной системе языка). Следует отметить, что указанная особенность текста нашла свое отражение и в общем «лингвистическом» определении текста: «последовательность предложений, построенная согласно правилам данного языка, данной знаковой системы и образующая сообщение».[107]

Важной категорией текста является связность. Развернутое речевое высказывание (РРВ ) является связным, если оно представляет собой законченную последовательность одиночных высказываний (предложений), связанных друг с другом по смыслу и грамматически в рамках общего замысла автора.

Семантическая связность РРВ (текста) – это смысловая связь составляющих его элементов на основе общности содержания последовательных фрагментов текста и отдельных, прежде всего смежных, фраз. Она может осуществляться без использования внешне выраженных средств связи. При восприятии текста такая связь уверенно воссоздается реципиентом на основе того, что отображаемые в нем объекты-денотаты (предметы, явления, события) находятся «рядоположенно» в пространственном и временном континууме (После операции глаза стали лучше видеть. Он перестал носить очки); а также благодаря наличию у продуциента и реципиента общих «пресуппозиций» – знаний о предмете речи и др. (18, 165 и др.).

В лингвистической и психолингвистической литературе, посвященной теории текста, выделяются следующие критерии связности развернутого речевого сообщения: смысловые связи между частями (фрагментами) текста, логические связи между последовательными предложениями, семантические связи между частями предложения (словами, словосочетаниями) и завершенность выражения мысли говорящего (полнота отображения предмета речи, передачи основной «идеи» текста и др.) [64, 95, 141 и др.]. Исследователи указывают на такие факторы связности целого сообщения, как последовательное раскрытие темы в следующих друг за другом сегментах текста, взаимосвязь тематических и рематических элементов («данное» и «новое») внутри и в смежных предложениях, наличие смысловой связи между всеми структурными компонентами развернутого речевого высказывания (34, 141).

Формальная связность — это связь между сегментами текста, реализуемая через знаки языка. Она основана на обязательном наличии элементов связности во внешней языковой структуре текста. Любой правильно организованный текст представляет собой смысловое и структурное единство, части которого тесно взаимосвязаны как семантически, так и синтаксически. Чтобы убедиться в этом, достаточно обратиться прежде всего к предложениям, составляющим текст. Даже простой анализ позволяет обнаружить разнообразные смысловые и синтаксические связи между ними. Эти межфразовые связи образуют первый уровень организации текста.

В лингвистике межфразовая связь определяется как синтаксическая и семантическая связь между предложениями, ССЦ, абзацами, главами и другими частями текста, организующая его смысловое и структурное единство (141, 206 и др.).

Как указано выше, между предложениями текста существуют отношения, определяемые задачами речевой коммуникации, т. е. смысловая связь. Эта связь обеспечивается соответствующими лексико-грамматическими средствами. Как не всякие слова можно объединить в одно предложение, так и не всякие предложения можно соединить в один связный текст. Например, предложения Витя пошел купаться. Силикатный клей очень прочно склеивает листы бумаги. Имена собственные существительные пишутся с большой буквы невозможно объединить в текст. Они настолько разнородны по своей семантике, что не могут быть объединены смысловыми отношениями (Л.И. Лосева [141] ).

В связном развернутом высказывании между собой сочетаются не только соседние предложения, но и разделенные другими. Связь между смежными (рядом стоящими) предложениями называется контактной, а между несмежными – дистантной. Первый вид связи «создает» текст с последовательной, «цепной» связью предложений, второй – является обязательным для текстов с параллельной связью его сегментов (предложений и ССЦ). В текстах «смешанного» типа всегда присутствуют оба вида связи. Let's give an example.

Извозчик Иона Потапов весь бел, как привидение. Он согнулся, насколько только возможно согнуться живому телу, сидит на козлах и не шевельнется. Упади на него целый сугроб, то и тогда бы, кажется, он не нашел нужным стряхивать с себя снег... Его лошаденка тоже бела и неподвижна. Своею неподвижностью, угловатостью форм и палкообразной прямизною ног она даже вблизи похожа па копеечную пряничную лошадку. (А.П. Чехов)

В данном фрагменте текста пять предложений, соединенных контактной и дистантной связью при помощи личных и притяжательною местоимений, синонимов, лексических повторов. Второе предложение контактно связано с первым (Иона Потапов – он, третье контактно со вторым (он – на него) и дистантно с первым (Иона Потапов – он); четвертое предложение контактно связано с третьим (он — его лошаденка) и дистантно со вторым (он не шевельнется — его лошаденка тоже неподвижна), это же четвертое предложение связано дистантно с первым (Иона Потапов бел — его лошаденка тоже бела).

When analyzing text, contact interphase communication is detected and identified (by type of communication) relatively easily; This type of analysis, as a rule, does not cause serious difficulties for students. Distant communication is perceived much more difficult, therefore, when analyzing a text, it needs a special explanation from the teacher.

Межфразовую связь, осуществляемую при помощи повторения слов, называют «цепной связью», выраженной лексическим или синонимическим повтором. Тип развернутого речевого высказывания определяется как «текст с цепной, последовательной связью предикатов» (81, 236). Если повторяемое слово выступает в обоих предложениях в роли подлежащего, то связь имеет вид «подлежащее – подлежащее»; если в одном предложении оно является подлежащим, а в другом дополнением, то это связь «подлежащее – дополнение»; возможны также связи: «дополнение – дополнение», «дополнение – подлежащее» и др. (141, 199 и др.).

Контактные и дистантные связи играют важную роль в организации текста, они объединяют все его части в одно смысловое и структурное целое. Структурно-смысловая целостность текста во многом обеспечивается («создается») смысловой и грамматической связью между отдельными высказываниями-предложениями, образующими текст. В зависимости от вида связи между предложениями, выделяются три основных типа организации текста: тексты с последовательной (или «цепной») связью предложений, тексты с параллельной связью отдельных высказываний и тексты «смешанного» типа, построенные на основе одновременного использования как параллельной, так и последовательной связи предложений.

Сущность и характер дистантной связи раскрывается полностью только при анализе целого текста. По сравнению с контактной связью она сложнее и средства ее выражения более разнообразны. Дистантная связь соединяет наиболее информативные части текста, создавая смысловую и структурную его основу, формируя его целостность. В текстах, взятых из художественных произведений, особого внимания заслуживает дистантная межфразовая связь. Обычно те фрагменты, в которых речь идет об одном и том же лице, явлении и т. д., связаны между собой дистантной связью и начинаются с абзаца. Приведем пример текста, в котором дистатная связь проявляется достаточно отчетливо.

The bell sounded something to the bells, the bells affectionately answered him. Tarantas screamed, started off, the bell started to cry, the bells laughed. The driver, lifting himself up, lashed two times along the restless pristiazhnaya, and the threesome pounded on the dusty road. The town slept. Houses and trees were blackened on both sides of a wide street, and not a single light was visible. In the sky, covered with stars, narrow clouds stretched here and there, and where the dawn would soon begin, a narrow moon crescent stood; but neither the stars, of which there were many, nor the crescent moon, which seemed white, cleared the night air. It was cold, damp, and it smelled of autumn ...

Troika left the city. Now, on one side only the fence of the gardens and the lonely vets were visible, and in the front everything was obscured by mist. Here in the open, the crescent moon seemed more and the stars shone brighter. By here smelled damp; the postman went deeper into the collar, and the student felt an unpleasant cold run first around his legs, then over the bales, along his hands, across his face. The three went quieter; the bell stood still, and it was cold. There was a splash of water, and under the feet of the horses and around the wheels the stars were jumping, reflected in the water.

Ten minutes later it became so dark that the mind could not see either the stars or the crescent. This trio entered the forest. (A.P. Chekhov.)

All means of interphase communication can be divided into two groups: 1) communication means, common both for connecting parts of complex sentences and for connecting independent sentences, and 2) communication means used only for connecting sentences and called interframe devices proper (141, 199).

The first group includes: unions, particles, and modal-introductory words; the unity of the types of tense-verb forms, pronominal and synonymic substitution , etc. .

Service and input-modal words as a means of interframe communication

Separately designed sentences in the stream of speech can be connected with the same official words as parts of complex sentences, although their functions are different. Consider an example.

I was sure that my unavailable absence from Orenburg was to blame for everything. I could easily justify myself: horsemanship was not only never forbidden, but was also strongly approved. I could be accused of being too quick and not disobeying. But my friendly intercourse with Pugachev could be proved by many witnesses and should have seemed at least very suspicious ... (AS Pushkin) [108]

There are four interrelated sentences in this text. In the second and fourth, the same alliance is used . However, in the first case it connects the predicative parts of a complex sentence, and in the second case it connects the sentence with all the previous part of the text. Combining parts of a complex sentence, the alliance but contrasts the predicate of one part with the predicate of the other part (it was not forbidden, but was approved). Its function is localized within the sentence. The semantic relations expressed by him are definite and concrete. Combining independent proposals, it allies expresses more complex relations. Its functions extend beyond the sentence in which it is located. The content of the entire fourth sentence is opposed to the content of the three previous sentences.

The general function of unions as inter-phase communication means is to concretize the relationship between independent offers. Inside the complex sentence, the union and usually indicates a temporary connection of events. This can be illustrated by the following example.

For four days, the Cossacks fought and fought, fighting off bricks and stones. But reserves and forces were exhausted, and Taras decided to break through the ranks. And the Cossacks had already made their way, and, perhaps, once again, fast horses would serve them truly, when Taras suddenly stopped in the middle of the race and cried out: “Stop! there was a cradle with tobacco; I do not want the cradle to go to the enemy Poles! ”And the old chieftain bent down and began to look in the grass for his cradle with tobacco, an inseparable companion on the seas, and on land, and in hikes, and at home. Meanwhile, suddenly ran up the grip and grabbed him under the mighty shoulders. (N.V. Gogol)

The use of various alliances as means of interphrase communication in this text gives the narrative a pronounced expressive-emotional character. Particles and modal-type introductory words after all, here, here, and so, therefore, thus, first, second, and finally, and others are also used as means of communication of sentences. They connect the offer they open to either one of the previous ones or a group of offers. The most common particles among them are after all . The use of particles and input-modal words as an interphrase communication means depends on the style of speech and on its type (monologue, dialogue), as well as on the theme and idea of ​​the work. In the scientific style, the particle is used mainly for the introduction of illustrations and examples. So, it is often used in sentences like: Here is a piece of that scene. Here are illustrations , etc. [109] Proposals to this particle may have a causal relationship; at the same time, it makes the semantic connection of sentences more emotional and energetic.

One of the most important means of inter-phrase communication, which determine the general grammatical coherence of the text, is the unity of the types of tense forms of verbs-predicates (9, 26, 199). When describing the phenomena of one semantic plan (landscape, setting, facial characteristics), the predicate verbs are usually expressed in the forms of the same type and tense (26, 141, etc.). At the same time, when describing the situation, landscape, human habits, signs of phenomena, long processes, as a rule, the verbs of an imperfect form of the past or present tense are used. As examples, we present two descriptive texts in which imperfective verbs are used in all sentences (in the first text in the past, in the second - in the present tense).

The newly rising sun flooded the whole grove with a strong, though not bright, light; dewdrops everywhere were shining, in some places they suddenly caught fire and carried large drops; everything breathed freshness, life, and that innocent solemnity of the first moments of the morning, when everything was already so light and so silent. All that was heard was that the crumbly voices of the larks over the distant fields and in the grove itself two or three birds, without haste, took out their short little caps and seemed to listen afterwards as they did. From the wet earth it smelled of a healthy, strong smell, clean, light air overflowed with cool streams. In the morning, on a glorious summer morning, it breathed from everything, everything looked and smiled in the morning, as if it were a rosy, just washed face of an awakened child. (I.S. Turgenev.)

And the autumn, clear, slightly cold, frosty day in the morning, when the birch, like a fabulous tree, all golden, beautifully painted on a pale blue sky, when the low sun no longer warms, but shines brighter than the summer, the small aspen grove all sparkles through, as if it is fun and easy to stand naked, the frost still whitens at the bottom of the valleys, and the fresh wind gently stirs and drives the fallen warped leaves - when blue waves joyfully rush along the river , regularly raising up scattered geese and ducks; in the distance, the mill knocks, half-closed by willows, and, pesting in the bright air, the pigeons quickly circle over it ... (CG Paustovsky)

Pronouns and numerals as interframe communication

Among the means of communication of independent sentences the most widely used personal pronouns are he, she, it, they and possessive of him, her, theirs. In any text, if not the second, then the third, fourth sentence is necessarily associated with the previous one with the help of these pronouns: “Helen's facial features have not changed much since the day of her departure from Moscow, but their expression became different: it was thoughtful and stricter, and the eyes looked bolder. (I.S. Turgenev). Consider this feature on the example of a piece of text.

Magpie has a nickname - beloboka. This is because the feathers on her sides are completely white. But the head, wings and tail - black, like a crow. The tail of the magpie is very beautiful - long, straight, like an arrow. And the feathers on it are not just black, but with a greenish tint. An elegant bird of forty and so deft, agile - rarely when she sits quietly, more and more jumping, fussing.

In the above text, the second sentence is connected with the first pronoun in the genitive case with the preposition y (in her), which corresponds to the noun in the same case - in the magpie (connection - “addition - addition”). The fifth sentence is associated with the fourth pronoun, it is in the prepositional sentence (on it), correlated with the noun in the nominative case tail (connection - "subject - addition").

As means of interphrase communication, other pronouns are used, which are characterized by specific semantic and stylistic functions in the organization of speech. Some of them only relate to contact sentences, others may relate to a large part of the text and link a number of sentences with a general meaning. Thus, the demonstrative pronoun can combine both two sentences and two semantic-syntactic integers (SCC); it may also apply to the whole text, especially if the piece begins with it: It was in winter ... or ends: It finally came to fruition ... , etc. This pronoun can be associated with any proper name, regardless of its gender or number.

The demonstrative pronoun is such (such, such) in contrast to the pronoun it has an additional evaluative value. The definitive pronoun performs everything a function that is close to that in which it appears within the same sentence with homogeneous terms. In conjunction with the demonstrative pronoun, this (“all this”) the definitive pronoun all also applies to the entire previous or subsequent part of the text.

The garden, more and more thin, turning into a real meadow, went down to the river, covered with green reeds and willow; near the mill dam there was a reach, deep and fishy, ​​a small mill with a straw roof roared angrily, frogs croaked furiously. On the water, smooth as a mirror, occasionally there were circles and shivering river lilies disturbed by merry fish. On the other side of the river was the village of Dubechnya. Quiet blue stretched to itself, promising coolness and peace. And now all this - and the reach, and the mill, and the cozy coast - belonged to the engineer! (A.P. Chekhov)

Of the collective numerals as the means of interphase communication most often used the numerals both and two. Collective numerals two - seven are often used in conjunction with the definitive pronoun - all three, all six, all five , etc. Any numeral used in a sentence without a noun, which it defines quantitatively, is “attracted” to its meaning. As a result, it turns out to be one of the means of interframe communication. The same can be said about ordinal numbers.

Actually interframe communications

In addition to the communication tools discussed above, which are common both for parts of a complex sentence and for independent sentences, there are some that, although they are used for communication of parts of a complex sentence, reveal themselves more fully as means of interframe communication. These include words with a temporary, spatial, objective and procedural meaning, the semantics of which is not disclosed within the same sentence. Consider the following example:

That night I did not sleep and did not undress. I intended to go at dawn to the gates, from which Marya Ivanovna had to leave, and there to say goodbye to her for the last time. I felt a great change in myself: the excitement of my soul was much less painful to me than the despondency in which I had recently been immersed. With sadness of separation, fuzzy hopes, impatient anticipation of dangers, and a sense of noble ambition merged in me. The night passed unnoticed. (A.S. Pushkin)

A fragment of the text consists of five consecutively interrelated sentences. The second is in a causal relationship with the first, they are related to each other by pronoun repetition (I - I), a certain ratio of the forms of predicate verbs (I didn’t sleep, did not undress - an imperfect look and intended to go and say goodbye - a perfect look); the third sentence is with the second and the first in effective and effectual relations and is connected by the same means (pronominal repetition I am I); the fourth sentence is connected with the third effective-causal relationship, and the means of communication is also pronoun repetition (I - in me and others); The fifth sentence, in relation to all the previous ones, expresses a productive-investigative relationship (.. so that the night passed unnoticed), replacing the description of what happened with the narrator; it is associated primarily with the first sentence (lexical repetition on this night - night). By meaning, all five sentences refer (are attached) to the circumstance of the time of the first sentence.

The circumstance of time most often serves as a general temporary basis for all sentences of the text. The number of sentences related to the circumstance of time may be more or less depending on the structural-semantic organization of the text. However, the role of the circumstances of the time or place with which the sentences of the text are connected remains unchanged.

As a means of transmitting the chronological sequence of the events being described, there are usually adverbs of time, nouns with pretexts and without pretexts, quantitatively-named combinations, adverbial manifestations and adverbial revolutions, subordinate times in complex sentences, etc. means of communication proposals in these unities. Let's give an example.

Nikolay Rostov on that day received from Boris a note informing him that the Izmailovsky regiment was spending the night fifteen miles without reaching Olmuts and that Boris was waiting for him to transfer the letter and the money. Rostov was especially needed now, when, returning from a hike, the troops stopped at Olmutz ... People from Pavlograd had a feast for feasts, and the celebrations of the awards received during the hike Rostov recently celebrated its production in cornets, bought Bedouin, Denisov's horse, and was around must comrades and marketers. After receiving a note from Boris, Rostov and his comrades went to Olmuts.

As he approached the camp of the Izmailov regiment, he thought about how he would hit Boris and all his fellow guardsmen with his raked military hussars. (L.N. Tolstoy)

At the same time, of all the interframe communication means transmitting the chronological development of the events described in the texts, the verbal adverbial force has the greatest “fastening force” of both contact and distant sentences:

Usually wolves teach their children to hunt, letting them play prey; and now, watching the wolves chasing the puppy along the crust and fighting with him, the wolf thought: “Let them learn”.

Having played enough, the cubs went into the pit and went to bed. The puppy lounged a little from hunger, then also stretched out in the sun. And when they woke up, they began to play again. (A.P. Chekhov)

Words with a spatial meaning and their functional syntactic equivalents are also often used as a means of interphrase communication. Words with a meaning of space include corresponding adverbs, as well as nouns in both nominative and indirect cases indicating the place or direction of action. Relations with the help of such words can permeate the text from the beginning to the end, connecting its parts characterizing the described events from the side of their spatial distribution. Such words can organize sentences into complex syntactic wholes, fragments and whole chapters of text-works. For example:

In the middle of a dense forest on the narrow lawn a small earthwork was erected, consisting of a rampart and a moat, behind which were several huts and dugouts.

In the courtyard, a lot of people, of which one could immediately recognize the robbers for a variety of clothes and general equipment, dined, sitting without hats, near a brotherly cauldron. A guard was sitting on a shaft beside a small cannon , legs crossed under him; he put a patch in some of his clothes ...

In the hut from which the old woman came out, behind a partition, the wounded Dubrovsky was lying on the marching bed. Before him on the table lay his pistols, and the saber hung in their heads ...

There were several voices in the forest ... (A.S. Pushkin)

In the organization of each given text fragment, words with spatial meaning and their functional and syntactic equivalents, which are the main means of contact and distant communication, play a leading role.