Lecture
Content
1 Teaching, learning, teaching, learning activities, their comparative analysis and interrelation.
2 Learning as a result of the educational activities of a teenager.
3 With the help of what kinds of learning is it possible for a child to learn new material in class.
4 The problem of choosing the most rational mechanisms of learning (which determines the choice of learning mechanisms).
5 Types of special learning:
6 Types of natural learning:
7 Training
8 Parenting (as an interrelated process with learning)
9. Types of training
There are several concepts related to the acquisition of human life experience in the form of knowledge, skills, abilities. This is - learning, teaching, learning.
Learning - the acquisition of knowledge and skills. The term is used primarily in the psychology of behavior. In contrast to the pedagogical concepts of learning, education and upbringing, it covers a wide range of processes for the formation of individual experience.
The doctrine is defined as the teaching of a person as a result of a purposeful, conscious appropriation of the sociocultural experience transferred by him and the individual experience formed on this basis, is considered as a type of learning. Two persons are involved in learning activities: a teacher and a student. But this is not just a transfer of knowledge from one to another. This is primarily a process of active mastering knowledge, skills and abilities under the guidance of a teacher. Teaching should be developing.
Learning means purposeful, consistent transfer of sociocultural experience to another person in specially created conditions. In the psychological and pedagogical respect, learning is seen as managing the process of accumulating knowledge, forming cognitive structures, and organizing and stimulating a student’s learning and cognitive activity.
In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is used as the equivalent of "teaching". If “learning” and “teaching” denote the process of acquiring individual experience, then the term “learning” describes both the process itself and its result.
Scientists interpret the considered triad of concepts in different ways. For example, the points of view of A.K. Markova and N.F. Talyzin are as follows: (see drawing)
Thus, the psychological concepts of "learning", "learning", "teaching" cover a wide range of phenomena associated with the acquisition of experience, knowledge, skills, abilities in the process of active interaction of a subject with the subject and social world - in behavior, activity, communication.
So, learning / learning / teaching is the process by which a subject acquires new ways of carrying out behavior and activities, fixing and / or modifying them. The most common concept for the process and the result of the acquisition of individual experience is “learning”.
Learning activities - the activities of the subject, aimed at the development of common methods of action and self-development in the process of implementation and control, turning into self-control and self-esteem.
Educational activity is, first of all, individual activity. It is complex in its structure and requires special formation, characterized by goals and objectives, motives. Like an adult who performs work, a student must know what to do, why, how, to see his mistakes, to control and evaluate himself. In the process of learning activities, a student not only masters knowledge and skills, but also learns to set learning objectives (goals), to find ways of learning and applying knowledge, to control and evaluate their actions.
Learning differs from teaching as the acquisition of experience in activities directed by cognitive motives or motives and goals. Through learning, any experience can be gained - knowledge, skills, abilities. Like any acquisition of experience, learning includes an unconscious understanding of the content of the material and its fixation (involuntary memorization).
The most important factor of learning is the place of digestible material in relevant activities.
Learning, behavior change, resulting from the acquisition of experience. In the particular case when the acquisition of experience - knowledge, skills, abilities - is determined by cognitive motives and goals, they talk about learning (and, accordingly, learning as a process).
It can be concluded that learning activity is the process of mastering new knowledge of skills, skills, experience, respectively learning is the result of learning activity.
Types of learning
All types of learning can be divided into two types: associative and intellectual. A person has five types of learning. Three of them are also peculiar to animals.
1. Learning on the mechanism of imprinting. It is a rapid automatic adaptation of the organism to the conditions of life using innate forms of behavior - unconditioned reflexes. Through imprinting, instincts are formed that are genetically programmed and have little change.
2. Conditioned reflex learning. Within its framework, life experience is acquired through the formation of conditioned reflexes.
3. Operant learning. In this case, individual experience is gained through trial and error.
4. Vicarious learning is carried out by direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately adopts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior.
5. Verbal learning gives a person the opportunity to acquire new experience through language and verbal communication. Thanks to him, a person can pass on to other people speaking speech and receive from them the necessary knowledge and skills. To do this, they must be expressed in words that are understandable to the student, and the meaning of incomprehensible words needs clarification.
Learning is realized through the following intellectual mechanisms: the formation of associations (establishing links between individual knowledge or parts of experience), imitation (mainly in the formation of skills and habits), distinction and generalization (in the field of concept formation), insight ("hunch", t . e. the immediate discretion of any new information in the already known from past experience), creativity (the basis for the creation of new knowledge, objects, skills and abilities).
Learning happens on its own, learning is done - and, as a rule, consciously.
Training is based on the conscious and purposeful use of unconscious forms of learning. We can consciously use game moments, habituation and sensitization moments, learning from trial and error to master new knowledge, skill or skill.
Usually, such processes as habituation, imprinting, imprinting, sensitization, associative learning (anchoring, the formation of the simplest conditioned reflexes) are attributed to learning, since these processes usually occur on their own, naturally.
Many other processes, such as habit formation, play, training, memorization, imitation, trial and error (instrumental learning), insight, sequential learning (forming complex motor and speech skills), sensory differentiation reactions, etc., when something happens as a natural learning, and once as a special training, with the task of teaching or learning.
A game can be assigned to learning when it is not a part of learning, but simply a game: reproducing behavior or its elements, simply because it is pleasant or interesting. Also, imitation, as an accidental, unintended copying of others, is often a type of learning. When imitation is performed with a cognitive purpose, it goes beyond the framework of learning and becomes an option for learning.
All types of learning can be consciously used in the process of training or education.
The addiction (habituation) is the most common type of training, the antonym of sensitization. Habituation occurs unconsciously, simply the nervous system after a while ceases to respond to repeated repetitive signals. The stronger the stimulus, the less often it is used - the longer the addiction occurs. This is the most ancient and simple form of learning. By the way, this must be remembered in the processes of learning, because even if a strong encouragement is used too often, it can be “run over”, that is, after some time the reaction to it will weaken. Therefore, any teaching of someone to something is a creative process that requires a fair amount of imagination.
The film "Ice Age 3: The era of dinosaurs" The one who first appears before the eyes of newborns, will be for them - mom!
Imprinting (from imprint - leave a trail, capture, fix) - innate readiness for fixed imprinting (homeland, parents, sexual partner ...) See Sexual imprint
The words "imprinting" and "imprinting" are often used interchangeably, although this is not always correct. See the Imprint
In ethology (the science of animal behavior), imprinting is a specific form of learning: fixing in their memory the attributes of objects when forming or correcting innate behavioral acts. Objects can be parents (speakers and as carriers of typical features of the species), brothers and sisters (cubs of the same litter), future sexual partners (males or females), food objects (including animal victims), permanent enemies (the image of the appearance of the enemy formed in combination with other behavioral conditions, such as the warning cries of parents), characteristic features of the usual habitat (birth).
The famous zoopsychologist K. Lorenz showed that the nestlings born to the world (and not only the nestlings) still do not know who their mother is. At a strictly defined time, a few hours after birth, they have a state of readiness for capturing, their eyes as if looking for: “Who are you, mother? Where are you, mother? ”Mom admits that she has“ key stimuli ”- for goslings, for example, it is something resembling a beak in a moving object of medium size. Since it is usually right after the birth with their mother next to them, they are precisely her. But if the researcher cleans his mother, he sits down instead of her, pretending to be something like a beak, the goslings recognize him as their mother and after that all childhood is ready to go after him. Everything, the impression happened: now show them the real, dear mother - they will not recognize her.
The fixation of the attributes of objects occurs predominantly in the early stages of life, most often soon after birth, and is possible only during a certain, usually very limited, period - the “sensible” (or “critical”) period. As a rule, the result of the imprint is very difficult to change further (the “irreversibility” of the imprint results).
Imprinting Imprinting:
It is often believed that sealing is possible only at the very first time after birth. This inaccurate opinion is associated with observations of animals, the babies of which are already almost independent (many birds, lambs, kids and guinea pigs).
Thus, the critical period (or the so-called “sensitive age”) for chickens and goslings lasts only one day, sometimes only a few hours after the birth of the animal.
In those species in which newborns are born in a helpless state (sparrows, pigeons, cats, dogs, kangaroos, and especially primates), the critical period is greatly prolonged and shifted to later terms. Weak and helpless, sometimes blind newborns of these species for a long time need close contact with the mother. They are not able to exist independently in natural conditions, their training and various phases of imprinting are sometimes extended for years (up to the age of puberty).
Such late forms of imprinting include the imprinting of a mother on a calf, for example, in goats. A mother must learn to recognize the goat immediately after birth, otherwise she may refuse to feed him. The goat is guided mainly by the smell of the cub. She also receives a seal through the vomeronasal organ, licking and sniffing at the newborn. The critical period in this case is very limited in time - it is enough to separate the mother from the kid for two hours, and she may not recognize him and refuse to feed him.
It is also known very early voice recording of birds, such as mallards (duck species) tree hollows in the vicinity of water bodies. The female, while hatching eggs, makes a characteristic quack, and the ducklings in the egg are imprinted on this sound. When the ducklings hatch, they run to the voice, wherever the quacking mother is. Ducklings bred in an incubator are not able to recognize the call of a duck, and do not follow it into the water.
In American psychology, E. Hess formulated the “law of effort”:
The imprinting force is equal to the logarithm of the effort expended by the animal to achieve a meaningful object during the imprinting period.
In human life, imprinting is also present, although it plays a smaller role. The most pronounced imprinting in newborns: at any given moment, any infant remembers - captures - its mother.
The film "Shopaholic"
Increased attention, flash eyes - capturing a credit card as a magical object happened.
Imprinting - a flash of attention, instantaneous and permanently recording into memory, seriously affecting the subsequent behavior.
Weaker - impression: the same, but not necessarily for a long time.
A special kind of imprinting is imprinting: innate readiness for fixed imprinting (of homeland, parents, sexual partner ...) See Sexual imprinting
Be prepared for the fact that "sealing" and "imprinting" are often used interchangeably.
The closest and most interesting to us is the capturing of the Beloved. Unlike imprinting, which implies an innate readiness for fixed imprinting and what is happening, as a rule, in early childhood, the imprint of the Beloved takes place in quite an adult state and is caused not by innate, but by social and situational factors.
That is, it may be completely strange and accidental.
To capture the Beloved, only two things are needed: a certain (preferably higher) level of premonition plus a key incentive.
The strength of the seal depends on the following circumstances.
Sensitization is an increase in sensitivity, an increase in the rate of emotional response when the nervous system begins to respond to a small signal much more actively than usual.
As a form of learning, usually such a reaction occurs after an unexpected, extremely strong signal (usually negative) or in an alarming situation.
For example, if you go home during the day, when there is light and a lot of people, even a close stranger will not scare you. But if you go dark, and even some, you have a different state (you have sensitization) - and your reaction will be completely different.
Desensitization is the reverse process of sensitization. Specially organized (systematic) desensitization in various forms is used as a popular psychotherapeutic method.
If you have difficulties with a certain situation, for example, fear of riding in transport, fear of heights, fear of public speaking, you can apply to contemplate these situations (pictures of a situation or a situation live) against the background of relaxation (against the background of an autogenous state). The systematic combination of the image of this situation with calm will lead to the fact that in a real situation you will feel calm.
The method can be combined with the use of a complex positive image.
The author of the method is Joseph Wolp (USA).
More often now, this approach is called Desensitization.
Со времен Аристотеля до наших дней основной принцип научения — ассоциация по смежности - формулируется сходным образом. Когда два события повторяются с небольшим интервалом (временная смежность), они ассоциируются друг с другом таким образом, что возникновение одного вызывает в памяти другое. Русский физиолог Иван Петрович Павлов (1849-1936) первым занялся исследованием в лабораторных условиях свойств ассоциативного научения. Павлов обнаружил, что, хотя звук колокольчика первоначально никак не отражался на поведении собаки, однако, если он регулярно звонил в момент кормежки, через некоторое время у собаки вырабатывался условный рефлекс: звонок сам по себе начинал вызывать у нее слюноотделение. Павлов измерял степень научения количеством слюны, выделившейся при звонке, не сопровождавшемся кормежкой (см. Условный рефлекс). Метод выработки условных рефлексов основан на использовании уже существующей связи между специфической формой поведения (слюноотделением) и неким событием (появлением еды), которое вызывает эту форму поведения. При формировании условного рефлекса в эту цепочку включается нейтральное событие (звонок), которое ассоциируется с событием «естественным» (появлением еды) настолько, что выполняет его функцию.
Вариант ассоциациативного научения - метод парных ассоциаций: вербальные единицы (слова или слоги) заучиваются парами; предъявление впоследствии одного члена пары вызывает вспоминание о другом. Этот тип научения имеет место при овладении иностранным языком: незнакомое слово образует пару со своим эквивалентом на родном языке, и эта пара заучивается до тех пор, пока при предъявлении иностранного слова не будет восприниматься тот смысл, который передает слово на родном языке.
Об условных рефлексах говорят применительно к физиологическим реакциям, о якорях - применительно к эмоциональным реакциям и состояниям, об ассоциациях - применительно к памяти.
Можно сказать, что якорь - тот же условный рефлекс, только устанавливающий быстросоздаваемые условно-рефлекторные связи. Если собака в экспериментах Павлова начинала выделять желудочный сок на лампочку через несколько десятков повторений "мясо-лампочка", это долго, это не якорь. А если ассоциативные связи установились быстро, сразу или всего за несколько повторений, говорят о якорях.
Условный рефлекс - устойчивая связь между случайным сигналом и безусловным рефлексом, возникающая в результате повторяющихся их совпадений, один из видов ассоциативного научения. Условные рефлексы не врожденны, они возникают в течение жизни особи и не закрепляются генетически, не передаются по наследству. Понятие "условный рефлекс" ввел академик И.П. Pavlov. Условный рефлекс по И.П. Павлову, это срабатывание безусловного рефлекса на условный раздражитель (сигнал) в результате многократного совпадения (сочетания) сигнала и безусловного рефлекса, причем условный раздражитель должен действовать первым, выполняя функцию сигнала о том, что за ним последует.
Большинство своих исследований И.П.Павлов провел на собаках, его самые известные опыты - исследование слюноотделения в ответ на загорающуюся лампочку или звучание звонка. Когда собака видит корм, ее слюнные железы начинают выделять слюну. Это происходит всегда и у любой собаки, это безусловный рефлекс. Если собака слышит звонок, вначале у нее возникает ориентировочная реакция (собака напрягается и крутит головой), однако со временем эта реакция пропадает, и собака на звонок не реагировала уже никак. Однако, если звонок регулярно звонил в момент кормежки, а точнее прямо перед ней, то через некоторое время у собаки вырабатывался условный рефлекс: звонок сам по себе начинал вызывать у нее слюноотделение. Чем больше таких повторений, тем быстрее вырабатывается условный рефлекс. С другой стороны, если звонок перестает подкрепляться пищей, то через какое-то время рефлекс угасает, забывается.
Механизм образования условного рефлекса - возникновение в мозге двух очагов возбуждения и образование между ними временной нервной связи.
Впрочем, есть известный анекдот. Одна обезьяна объясняет другой, что такое условный рефлекс: «Смотри, я сейчас нажму на эту кнопку, и тот тип в белом халате тут же отреагирует и даст мне банан».
Существует значительная область приобретенного поведения, формирующегося на основе иных механизмов. Так, оказалось, что в отличие от условного рефлекса, при котором появлению реакции на условный сигнал всегда предшествует его подкрепление, у животного может сформироваться реакция, которая в прошлом подкреплялась после ее проявления: не как сигнал о том, что будет, а как подкрепление того, что животное уже сделало.
Этот механизм получил название оперантного обусловливания. Оперантное обусловливание можно рассматривать как разновидность сочетательных рефлексов, где возникает устойчивая связь между определенным видом поведения и его последствиями, а именно его положительным или отрицательным подкреплением. В оперантном обусловливании изучают не слюноотделение собаки, а ее поведение: например, при каких условиях собака будет подбегать к двери и у двери например три раза лаять.
Фильм "Железная леди"
Маргарет Тетчер убеждена, что разум и выработанные привычки определяют жизнь человека.
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Привычка - действие, которое возникло постепенно, в результате повторения, и теперь выполняется само, без моей воли.
For example, I went into a dark room - automatically, without thinking, turned on the light. By the way, many people who have made repairs know that if you move the light switch from the old place, you won’t get into it for a while. Then the brain will turn on and figure out where the switch is located. And then the habit of turning on the light automatically will arise.
Isaac Newton in his book “The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy”, when he formulated the first law of mechanics, seems to have written more about the habit:
Every body continues to be kept in a state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion for the time being, and since it is not forced by the applied forces to change this state.
Habits can also be defined as patterns of behavior that have developed over time. The formation of habits is called schooling, the elimination of the habit - weaning.
Привычки бывают самые разные: профессиональные и бытовые, социальные и индивидуальные, возникающие постепенно или практически мгновенно.
Социальные привычки - социальный уклад, принятый в данном обществе. Индивидуальные привычки – резерв для социальных. Когда они будут замечены и востребованы, они войдут в список социальных. Инициативность, деловая хватка – ранее было наказуемо, а позже стало уважаемо, стало частью «социального я». Тот, кто инициативен, считается социально более богатой личностью, чем человек без инициативы.
А самое главное - привычки бывают полезными и вредными.
Достаточно условно индивидуальные привычки делят на полезные и вредные (иногда пагубные). У людей порой бывает много вредных привычек: курить, разбрасывать вещи по всей квартире, ужинать у экрана телевизора, откладывать дела на потом и привычка недовольно топать ножкой, когда что-то не выходит, не получается, привычка мстить и др. Полезные привычки - ложиться вовремя, вставать рано, привычка при необходимости включать голову, привычка заботиться и жить с любовью, привычка видеть в людях и в себе в первую очередь хорошие черты.
Привычки человека - важнейшая характеристика его личности. Привычки складываются в характер, а характер определяет уже судьбу. Наши привычки бывают и нашими друзьями, и нашими врагами, поэтому за ними нужно внимательно следить. К сожалению, плохие привычки липнут к нам сами: чтобы приучить себя ложиться вовремя, нужно время и усилия, а чтобы приохотиться смотреть телевизор после полуночи, достаточно просто расслабиться...
Важное правило: отучать от плохих ошибок - дело малоперспективное. Если стоит подобная задача, сформулируйте ее не как борьбу с плохой привычкой, а как выработку новой хорошей привычки. Отучать - плохо, приучать - хорошо.
Habit is the result of repetition and is usually formed on day 21 (with daily repetition). Will a habit become a character trait? - It will become when adding several circumstances: if a person understands the meaning, the necessity of this new habit; if new actions of a person fit well into his lifestyle and are supported by his environment; and, finally, if visible positive results from the learned habit soon begin to appear. If you are attentive to your life, you will not allow bad habits to stick to you. If you still believe in yourself, you will always keep your former good habits and accustom yourself to new good habits.
Check out the articles for tips on how to acquire good habits and how to teach your friends to the good habits.
How to start developing a new good habit in the place of a bad old one? Can re-education still be effective? Rarely, but it can. Choosing a strategy, you need to take into account a lot: whether a bad habit is strong, an opportunity to appeal to a person’s mind and will, his ability to work on himself, even a person’s age. As long as a bad habit is not fixed, it is possible (and even better) not to pay attention to it, switching yourself or others to other matters, activities, hobbies. If the bad habit is fixed, to distract a person is already useless, decisive actions are required already. The most radical solution: physical intervention in a person's life, totally excluding the possibility of maintaining a lifestyle for him with bad habits. It is clear that this is an extreme case, and it is better not to bring it to him.
A game is a reproduction of behavior or its elements, simply because it is pleasant or interesting.
The game is one of the forms of training, when in the process of the game children (and adults) gain the knowledge and improve the skills that will be involved in life in the future. Children are most disposed to the game, but at a later age the game moments are often stored in a veiled form.
Regardless of its form or structure, the game is motivated by the interaction of player states with environmental states. The environment should contain elements that allow the alternation of elements of the motivational state of the individual. This gives rise to activity characterized by pleasure, interest, and relaxation of tension. Elements that generate gaming behavior may be similar to those that arouse curiosity and cause exploratory (or exploratory) behavior.
Day identifies 5 types of games and argues that external, observable characteristics do not always distinguish between these types; they differ mainly in their source and purpose. It:
The author of this fragment is Anna Vladlenovna Knyazeva.
The game for a child of preschool age is the main means of knowing the world, learning and education. Therefore, the quality of children's games is directly related to the further development of the child. For many famous people, children's play has grown into a profession that has become the meaning of life. Here are examples of such fates: Stanislavsky, Agatha Christie, Peter the Great, Marina Tsvetaeva, Svyatoslav Richter and many others.
In modern society there are many activities that compete with children's play and even supplant it — computer, television, and early learning. Nowadays, there are more and more children who practically do not play with other children. This raises questions: What is the meaning of a child's game? Are there age standards for children's games? When should parents worry? What to play with the child and how? - Let's see together.
In the family there are few activities that affect the development of the child, it is work, productive activity and play.
The labor of children in the family is now historically supplanted. Parents of small families, housing conditions, the availability of household appliances, the active development of the sphere of household services, leads to the fact that parents do not need to involve the child in household work, except for educational purposes. Girls no longer need to wash, sew, make food blanks, even dishes are now washed in dishwashers (which, by the way, is beneficial for the family, as it saves water). Boys have not needed to chop wood for a long time, to graze cattle, to heat a stove, to repair dishes and shoes, to do construction work on a house. Sometimes, the only thing a child has to do is to tidy up their things (toys, clothes, books). And even such a small amount of work a child can boycott, because he does not feel the real need of the family for his help (the mother herself copes with this work faster and better). If the parents do not have sufficient authority, especially if the children are in fact led by the family, the children in the family will not work because they do not want. How to treat this? Bad need to relate to this. An adult can work and love, and he can and should acquire this skill in the family from childhood. Smart parents do not nod at historical circumstances, but teach the child to do housework, going into the mode: "Children should not help parents!". It is the parents who should help the children in their housework, because the children are responsible for the housework.
For the development of a productive or aesthetic activity of the child, all conditions are now created. Virtually any child is now available drawing, modeling, singing, dancing, needlework, modeling and other types of children's creativity. Shops are replete with a choice of materials, a variety of creative studios and teachers offer their services. But, unfortunately, these educational activities can not always be embodied in a modern family. The reason - the presence of a TV and computer, as well as emotional fatigue of parents. According to surveys conducted among parents of preschoolers, most parents do not draw, do not mold, or do needlework together with their children at home. Moms and dads employed at work lead children to various clubs and studios at best, and prefer to relax at home, giving children the opportunity to choose their own leisure time. But after all, preschool children, firstly, imitate their parents, and secondly, they need a partner in common activities. Therefore, they are also happy to watch TV and play at the computer, despite the fact that the house has paints, clay, music and a lot of toys.
There remains one more magic tool that is useful for children's development - the role-playing game. Let's see what is the meaning, meaning, child's play?
Piaget, basing his game taxonomy on his own theory of cognitive development, argued that at each stage of development a certain type of game prevails: See Games at different stages of child development
The game is used by some therapists as a treatment. It is difficult for children to clearly describe their thoughts and feelings to the therapist, but they are able to “show” their thoughts, experiences, desires and fears in the game. See Play Therapy
Training - purposeful training to a certain form of behavior by positive or negative reinforcement without appeal to the mind of those who develop this behavior.
The film "Apassionata"
Both the horse and the girl are all trained. What grace!
Go
The film "Rotten Scammers"
Training. This is how professionals are trained.
In the rougher variants of training, instead of the method of positive or negative reinforcement, the method of rewards and punishments is used, which is not so environmentally friendly and less effective.
Positive training teaches "how to", it is dominated or only used by rewards, and the lack of reward is considered negative reinforcement. Negative training is built mainly on the negative impact and explains "how not to."
Training is a powerful, effective tool, and the assessment of training is difficult, just like the assessment of an ax, a tool with which some men cut wood and others plunder.
People who are prone to emotional labels are often called "training" those targeted and persistent methods of influence that they do not like. Even more curiously, the same people avoid calling their actions "training" when in fact they themselves use the method of training in relation to other people.
If a grandmother with simple persistence and praise teaches a very young child to use a pot (or, older, wash hands before eating), it is usually called just a process of upbringing, and not training.
It is true that she brings up, but it is not true that at this moment she is not training her beloved baby. Training as the inculcation of practical skills of socially acceptable behavior is one of the elements of education ↑.
Deriving training from education is just as wrong as reducing education to training. Education - a much broader concept, it uses, in addition to training, and many other forms of influence: explanation, involvement, suggestion, infection ...
When people act unconsciously, they do a lot of what they don’t notice. This is more than fair with regard to training: many dog owners, training their pets, do not notice situations when they unknowingly reinforce their unwanted behavior, and then complain, "What can you do, she is so stupid!” Similarly, most parents do not notice how they reinforce this or that behavior of their children. The sad thing is not that they train, without even noticing; the sad thing is that they train in unqualified training, not getting the results they seek.
If you are careful, it is easy to see that training is used very widely: in educating employees, in educating children and forming the authority of parents, in re-educating difficult children and teenagers ↑. If you are even more attentive and begin to see how children from the first months of their life successfully train their own parents, then it must be admitted that training permeates our whole life.
Where are the reasonable limits of training? When is it appropriate to use, when not?
Training is often used where there is no possibility of addressing the human mind: for example, in teaching to order young children who have higher mental functions are not yet sufficiently developed, or in relation to older adults with features of infantilism that the mind does not like to include. Where it is possible to turn to the mind of a person, it is foolish to use training. But where the human mind does not work or interferes, training may be useful ↑.
Training is a high art, training which begins with the knowledge of simple rules.
Memorization is the preservation in memory of new information. Memorization is an indispensable part of any study, study and learning.
Memorization is deliberate (targeted) or unconscious (imprinting and involuntary memorization). See Memories
Storing a large amount of information (see Mnemonic tricks)
Memorizing the necessary fact or event (do not forget ...) See How to remember the right - and only the right
Memorization helps:
The beginning and the end are best remembered. The law of “place in the series” states that in any sequence its beginning, then the end is most easily remembered, and the most difficult is the part immediately following the middle. The effect of a place in a series is manifested in the performance of any task of this kind - from memorizing a phone number to memorizing a poem.
In studies of Blumy Volfovny Zeigarnik, it was found that subjects, over a wide age range, tend to memorize interrupted tasks better (and more often) than they memorized completed tasks.
Kids love to imitate adults!
Imitation is the unconscious copying by a person (often children) of behavior (models and details of behavior), personal characteristics, emotions and reactions of the surrounding people (sometimes animals).
Imitation, apparently, is the innate tendency of a person, similar to instinct rather than reflex (see Reflex and instinct). The mechanisms of imitation work by themselves and do not need additional stimulation. With age, the imitation instinct partially fades out and becomes controlled by the brain, but still persists to the end of life to some extent or another and is uncontrollable.
Imitation is a natural form of learning and education. Imitating, children absorb what surrounds them and what attracts their attention. Children are not affected more by what you say to them, but by what you really present to them, show. See Model Training, Vicarious Learning
Vicarious learning (English vicarious learning) - introduced by the American psychologist A. Bandura the notion that learning can occur on the basis of observing the behavior of other people (animals) and the consequences of their behavior, not only on the basis of their own behavior and personally received reinforcement . Sometimes vicarious learning translates as “indirect learning”; more apt, but semantically narrowed, the name is “learning from the mistakes of others”. Vicarious teaching should not be fully identified with imitation.
Trial and error in learning is called instrumental learning, operant conditioning. This is the simplest form of operant conditioning. In operant behavior, spontaneous behavior is reinforced, and spontaneity can be both creative and random. In instrumental learning, it is random behavior that is reinforced by not looking for any creative mind or search in it. It is enough that this behavior is necessary for us or being on the way to the necessary for us.
The cat is sitting in the box, what to do does not know, jerks there or here. When (most often by chance) she pulled the cord, she was awarded. Sooner or later she learned to pull the cord ...
Reinforcement is made in the simplest form, by the method of rewards and punishments, and learning takes place at the expense of primitive forms of nervous activity, without the inclusion of reason.
Trial and error is slow learning. When life required that learning was fast, almost instantaneous, the animals developed an anchoring mechanism, phobias were formed.
The method of trial and error in teaching is that the teacher offers the student a task that has one solution. Ученик многократно пробует то одно решение, то другое, до тех пор, пока решение не будет найдено.
От инсайта отличается тем, что проб может быть очень много, а учитель может давать те или иные наводящие подсказки.
С дрессировкой схож тем, что есть конечная цель, нужная учителю. Отличие в том, что в этом случае ученик сам достигает ее, подходя к задаче с разных сторон, и есть вероятность, что найденное решение будет отличаться от того, которое задумал учитель: например будет более оригинальное.
Как метод обучения, метод проб и ошибок выше дрессировки и ниже инсайта. Логично использовать метод проб и ошибок, когда базовые навыки уже получены.
Инструментальное научение, operant conditioning, метод проб и ошибок - простейшая форма оперантного обусловливания. В оперантном поведении подкрепляется спонтанное поведение, а спонтанность бывает как творческая, так и случайная. В инструментальном научении подкрепляется именно случайное поведение, не ища в нем какого-либо творческого разума и поиска. Достаточно, что это поведение нужное нам или находящееся на пути к нужному нам.
Кошка сидит в ящике, что делать не знает, дергается туда или сюда. Когда (чаще всего случайно) она тянула за шнур, ее награждали. Рано или поздно она научалась тянуть за шнур...
Подкрепление производится в простейшей форме, методом наград и наказаний, и научение происходит за счет примитивных форм нервной деятельности, без включения разума.
Другой вариант оперантного обусловливания, его высшая форма - творческое научение, где подкрепляется в первую очередь включение разума, поисковой творческой активности в нужном направлении, для чего используются сложные и творческие методы подкрепления, существенно отличающиеся от простого метода наград и наказаний.
Торндайк
Впервые инструментальное научение как метод проб и ошибок был систематически изучен американским ученым Э.Торндайком (1874-1949), одним из основателей психологии образования. Торндайк помещал кошку в ящик, из которого она могла выйти, только потянув за шнур, свешивавшийся с крышки. После ряда случайных движений кошка рано или поздно тянула за шнур, обычно совершенно случайно. Однако, когда ее снова помещали в ящик, она уже тратила меньше времени на то, чтобы снова потянуть за шнур, и при повторении ситуации освобождалась из ящика мгновенно. Научение измерялось в секундах, которые требовались кошке для того, чтобы совершить правильное действие.
Skinner
Другой пример инструментального обучения — метод, предложенный американским психологом Б.Скиннером (1904-1990). «Ящик Скиннера» представляет собой тесную клетку с рычагом в одной из стенок; цель эксперимента — научить животное, обычно крысу или голубя, нажимать на этот рычаг. Животное до начала обучения лишают пищи, а рычаг соединяют с механизмом подачи еды в клетку. Хотя сначала животное не обращает внимания на рычаг, рано или поздно оно нажимает на него и получает пищу. Со временем интервал между нажатиями на рычаг уменьшается: животное научается использовать зависимость между желательной реакцией и кормлением.
Метод подследовательных приближений
Sometimes learning a particular behavior is so long or difficult that an animal could never come to it by chance. Then the method of "successive approximations" . Не ожидая выполнения всей требуемой последовательности действий, дрессировщик выдает поощрение за что-то похожее на желательный поведенческий акт. Например, если собаку нужно научить перекатываться, ей сначала дают лакомство просто за то, что она ложится по команде. После того, как первая часть освоена, собака получает поощрение лишь при случайном выполнении нужного движения: например, после того, как ляжет, она перекатится на бок. Шаг за шагом дрессировщик добивается все более близкого соответствия желаемому поведению, по принципу детской игры «холодно — теплее — горячо». В целом, инструментальное научение очень похоже на эту игру, но роль спрятанного предмета выполняет определенный вид поведения, а роль слова «горячо» — поощрение.
Последовательные приближения к желаемому поведению применяются и при лечении тяжелых форм шизофрении, когда единственная цель - побудить пациента двигаться и разговаривать вместо того, чтобы уйти в себя и хранить молчание. Как всегда при инструментальном научении, для успешности метода необходимо найти что-то, чего пациент хочет (например, сладости, жевательную резинку или интересные фотографии). После того как обнаружена хоть какая-то реакция, следует определить, какие аспекты поведения наиболее желательны, и сделать их условием получения вознаграждения.
Наказание в инструментальном научении используется реже. Наказание, в принципе, тоже формирует зависимость между нежелательным поведением и неприятным воздействием, тоже учит, но:
Инсайт (от англ. insight - проницательность, проникновение в суть) - разновидность научения, неожиданное решение задачи без явной связи с предшествующим анализом. "Озарение", когда вдруг все "складывается", становится ясным.
Термин введен в гештальтпсихологию в 1925 г. В. Келером. Келер проводил опыты с человекообразными обезьянами, которым предлагались задачи, решающиеся посредством использования разных предметов. Было обнаружено, что обезьяны после ряда безрезультатных проб прекращали активные действия и просто разглядывали предметы вокруг, после чего могли достаточно быстро найти правильное решение.
Творческое озарение Архимеда, выскочившего из ванны с криком "Эврика!", - классическая иллюстрация инсайта.
Инсайт приходит (или не приходит) сам, но можно создать условия, когда он будет приходить чаще. Инсайту способствуют:
Последовательное научение - научение, в котором осваивается последовательность поведенческих актов, вербальных или двигательных реакций.
Некоторые виды научения требуют выполнения отдельных поведенческих актов, каждый из которых по отдельности осваивается легко, но затем они объединяются в определенную последовательность.
Исследования одного из видов последовательного научения, т. н. серийного вербального научения, были начаты немецким философом и психологом Г.Эббингаузом (1850-1909). Эксперименты Эббингауза предполагали запоминание списков слов или слогов в определенном порядке и впервые продемонстрировали несколько хорошо известных законов, в частности закон, определяющий способность к запоминанию элементов последовательности. Этот закон «места в серии» гласит, что в любой последовательности легче всего запоминается ее начало, затем конец, а наиболее трудно — часть, следующая непосредственно за серединой. Эффект места в серии проявляется при выполнении любого задания такого рода — от запоминания телефонного номера до заучивания стихотворения.
Овладение навыком представляет собой другой вид последовательного научения, отличающийся от вербального тем, что заучивается последовательность не вербальных, а двигательных реакций. К какой бы области ни относился навык — спорту, игре на музыкальном инструменте или завязыванию шнурков, — овладение им почти всегда предполагает три стадии:
Интерес как объективка - объективное отношение к жизненным целям и ценностям.
Например, интерес конкретного проекта для нас складывается из его смысла, целесообразности, рентабельности и оптимальности. Смотри Интерес как объективка
Интерес как душевное состояние - повышенное внимание, душевное влечение, умственная тяга и повышенный жизненный тонус. Интерес - там, где душа. Антоним: безразличие. Близко: физическое (телесное) влечение - желание .
Поскольку в области практической психологии под интересом чаще всего понимается интерес как душевное состояние, данная статья именно этому и посвящена. Правильное, более точное название данной статьи - Интерес как душевное состояние .
Интерес как объективка может отличаться от интереса как душевного состояния: человек загорелся чем-то, потом потух - его состояние интереса меняется, хотя объективно не изменилось ничего. Проект объективно остался для него интересным, умом это человек понимает, но душа - не там...
Интересное - то, чем хочется заниматься, чем «загорелся». Интересный человек - тот, с кем хочется общаться.
Интересное - то, чему мы в поле сознания присваиваем яркий, светлый тон и в связи с чем повышаем свою энергетику, живость и жизненность.
Интерес бывает непроизвольным (интересное само по себе, без наших усилий и настроев), произвольным (надо - вот и сделал себе интересным) и послепроизвольным (само по себе интересно все, что надо).
Мимика и пластика: глаза интересующегося человека внимательные и собранные (чуть прищуренные), двигается он бодро, все стремится попробовать, потрогать, посмотреть. Лицо довольное, веселое, часто улыбающееся. Движения легкие, энергичные, внимательные. Тело внимательное, готово реагировать на происходящее. По состоянию похоже на состояние страха, только с обратным знаком - тело не зажато, а свободно, но готово действовать.
Интерес - высокотонусная эмоция, показатель душевного здоровья. У детей интересов обычно больше, хотя они и не стойкие: дети быстрее загораются и быстрее остывают. У взрослых интерес более стабильный, но в целом с упадком жизненных сил снижается и фон интересности жизни.
С б о льшим интересом к делам и жизни живут те люди, для которых характерны:
Интересу к жизни и делам можно учиться, как и любому другому навыку, переводя его в привычку. «Тебе это интересно? - Yes. - Why? - Потому что я привык все делать с интересом».
Интерес - одна из основ любви. Актеры знают - если нужно сыграть на сцене любовь, достаточно относиться к избранному человеку с живым интересом, и все будут чувствовать, что ты к нему не безразличен, понимать это как любовь.
Интерес может стать сильным позитивным мотиватором.
Чаще интерес возникает там, где есть новое: новое развлечение, новое дело или новая возможность развития.
Чтобы интерес возникал, рос и крепнул (превращался в привычку), помогает:
Интерес чаще пропадает там,
Интерес пропадает у тех и тогда, когда он невыгоден, когда есть внутренняя выгода страдать от скуки. Это может быть психологическая игра или месть ("Мне с тобой совсем не интересно!"), может быть оправданием лени ("Тут невозможно учиться - ужасно скучно!").
Интерес снижается с возрастом, с ухудшением здоровья и нарастающей усталостью жить.
Фильм "Непобедимый"
Обучение может происходить в разных формах, иногда - достаточно жестких.
Обучение - передача опыта, освоение новых форм поведения, новых знаний, умений и навыков.
Нас учили читать и писать, мы сами учились прыгать, плавать и танцевать.
В процессе обучения приобретаются простые или сложные формы поведения, от печатания на машинке до ответственности, творчества и любви.
Как передача опыта, обучение может происходить как в стихийной, так и специально организованной форме, быть разовым или длительным, обязательным или по желанию. See →
Основные пункты эффективного обучения, это доступный образец, поддержка и требовательность. Например, ваш ребенок пошел в первый класс, ему нужно учиться писать буквы. То есть вначале - палочки и крючочки. Для вас это элементарно, а для него - трудная работа. Как добиться результата? Вы готовы оказать любую помощь, но работать должен - он. А не вы. Вы готовы показывать, рассказывать. объяснять, тренировать, как угодно упрощать работы, но все необходимое он должен в результате сделать сам.
К примеру, вы говорите: "Тебе нужно нарисовать эти палочки. Смотри, как я их рисую по образцу - тебе нужно нарисовать так же. Я буду тебе помогать, но рисовать будешь ты". Он работает, трудится. Через 15 минут можно сделать перерыв, похвалить и одновременно откомментировать: "Как ты думаешь, скоро ты справишься? Вон дети играть пошли.. Нужно ли тебе в чем-то помочь? Я готов сам вместе с тобой палочки рисовать, давай вместе учиться; я ж тебя люблю, я знаю, что дело непростое, но учиться-то надо».
То есть - за успехи хвалишь, а работу требуешь. Все, то должен делать родитель как педагог, это показать доступный образец, далее хвалить и требовать результата. Если мама сильно занята на работе и с ребенком сама сидеть так не может, пусть педагога наймет. Но обучать ребенка трудиться - необходимо.
Есть определенные условия, без которых обучение не будет эффективным:
Обучение тесно перепелетается с научением, нуждается в управлении и является частью воспитания. See →
Пассивное обучение (в противоположность активному – это то, которое происходит не зависимо от воли субъекта, без прямого участия посторонних лиц – то есть само по себе.
К пассивному научению относят: привыкание, сенситизацию.
Пассивным обучением обычно приобритаются облигатным навыкам, а посредством активного – факультативным.
Воспитание - огромный целый мир со множеством направлений, видов и форм.
It is often written that education is a purposeful activity, designed to form a system of personality traits, attitudes and beliefs in children. It seems that education as a purposeful activity is not all education, but only one of its varieties, and not even the most characteristic of its varieties. All parents raise their children one way or another, despite the fact that not many adults are capable of purposeful activities outside of work. They raise their children, but not purposefully, but randomly and erratically.
For the needs of practice, we will define upbringing as influences that produce directional growth and development of the personality, develop or form personality qualities, and systematically change one's behavior. When educating change: the vision of life (a fairy tale about life), life values, rules, behaviors, skills and habits.
Often from education emit re-education as a separate process. Simplifying, we can say that education is the development and formation of personal qualities (as if from scratch, where it has not yet been brought up), re-education is redistribution of an already somehow educated (formed) personality.
Parenting is closely related to learning and behavior management. Most of the literature, supposedly devoted to education, actually tells how to teach at least the children, even the employees, or how to achieve the right behavior from one or the other. One-time, non-systemic impacts are management, but not education. The concepts close to Education: influence, influence, training, learning, education, training, management, study. See Parenting and related concepts.
All bring up everyone. Parents raise children, children raise us, their parents. A good husband brings up a wife; a wise wife at the same time brings up her beloved husband ↑. A good leader always brings up his employees at the same time that employees bring him up. Usually we love to educate ourselves, and we don’t love them very much when we are raised, although wise people are most grateful for the latter.
At the same time, supporters of free education hold a different point of view: “Education, as the deliberate formation of people according to well-known patterns, is unproductive, illegal and impossible. There is no right to educate. Let the children know what their blessing is, therefore let them educate themselves and go they will choose for themselves. " (LN Tolstoy). What are the rights and obligations of parents in the upbringing and education of children?
Parenting is a technology, and very different - from a heart-to-heart talk to hard dressing. Raising children is different from educating employees and other adults ↑. Civil and patriotic education is different from religious or moral education, education is different from re-education, and self-education is a very special area. In terms of goals, style and technology, traditional and free upbringing is different, male upbringing and female
An alternative to problem-based learning is heuristic learning.
The basis of problem-based learning was the ideas of the American psychologist, philosopher and teacher John Dewey (1859-1952), who in 1894 founded an experimental school in Chicago, in which the basis of training was not a curriculum, but games and work activity. The methods, techniques, and new teaching principles used in this school were not theoretically substantiated and formulated as a concept, but became widespread in the 20-30s of the 20th century. In the USSR, they were also used and even considered as revolutionary, but in 1932 they were declared projecting and prohibited.
The scheme of problem-based learning is presented as a sequence of procedures, including: the teacher’s setting the learning problem problem, creating a problem situation for students; awareness, acceptance and resolution of the problem, in the process of which they master the generalized ways of acquiring new knowledge; application of these methods to solve specific systems of problems.
A problem situation is a cognitive task, which is characterized by a contradiction between the available knowledge, skills, relationships, and requirements.
The theory proclaims the thesis about the need to stimulate the student’s creative activity and to assist him in the process of research activity and determines the methods of implementation through the formation and presentation of educational material in a special way. The basis of the theory is the idea of using the creative activity of students through the formulation of problem-specific tasks and the revitalization, due to this, of their cognitive interest and, ultimately, of all cognitive activity.
A problem task is a problem of a creative nature, which requires students to take a lot of initiative in their judgments, to search for ways that have not been tried before. It is a means of creating a problem situation. In contrast to the usual task, it is not just a description of a situation, consisting of the characteristics of the data that make up the condition of the task and an indication of the unknown, which should be disclosed on the basis of these conditions. An example of a problem task may be to establish causal relationships, to determine the continuity between facts, to identify the degree of progressiveness of a phenomenon, etc.
The advantages of problem-based learning:
Problem-based learning is learning, in which the teacher, relying on knowledge of the laws of the development of thinking, uses special pedagogical tools to develop the mental abilities and cognitive needs of students in the learning process.
1) students learn the system of knowledge and methods of mental practice;
2) the development of cognitive activity and creative abilities of students;
3) nurturing the skills of creative learning;
4) fostering the skills of creative application of knowledge and the ability to solve learning problems;
5) the formation and accumulation of experience of creative activity.
The activity of a teacher in case of problem-based learning consists in explaining the content of the most complex concepts, systematically creating problem situations, communicating facts to the students and organizing their learning and cognitive activities in such a way that, based on the analysis of the facts, students independently draw conclusions and generalizations.
As a result, students develop:
1) skills in mental operations and actions;
2) knowledge transfer skills, etc.
There is a certain sequence of stages of productive cognitive activity of a person in a problem situation:
1) the occurrence of a problem situation;
2) a problem situation;
3) awareness of the nature of the difficulty and the problem;
4) search for ways to solve it by guessing, hypothesizing and justifying it;
5) proof of hypothesis;
6) checking the correctness of the problem solving.
There are several types of problem situations:
1) the first type - a problem situation occurs under the condition that students do not know how to solve the problem;
2) the second type - a problem situation arises when students clash with the need to use previously acquired knowledge in new conditions;
3) the third type - a problem situation arises if there is a contradiction between the theoretically possible way of solving the problem and the practical impracticability of the chosen method;
4) the fourth type - a problem situation arises when there are contradictions between the practically achieved result and the students' lack of knowledge for theoretical substantiation.
There are the following methods used in problem-based learning (system of methods M. N. Skatkin and I. Ya. Lerner):
1) explanatory method - consists of a system of techniques, including the message and the teacher’s synthesis of the facts of this science, their description and explanation;
2) the reproductive method - used for understanding the assimilation of theoretical knowledge, for the processing of skills and abilities, for learning educational material, etc .;
3) practical method - is a combination of techniques for processing the skills of practical actions for the manufacture of objects, their processing for the purpose of improvement, involves activities related to technical modeling and design;
4) partial search method - is a combination of perception of a teacher's explanations by a student with his own search activity for the performance of work requiring independent passage through all stages of the cognitive process;
5) research method - represents mental actions to formulate a problem and find ways to solve it.
Heuristic learning is learning, the goal of which is to construct a student's own meaning, goals and content of education, as well as the process of its organization, diagnosis and awareness.
Heuristic learning for a student is the continuous discovery of a new one (heuristics from the Greek. Heurisko - find, find, discover).
Under the heuristic learning understand:
The prototype of heuristic learning is the method of Socrates, which, along with the interlocutor, through special questions and reasoning, came to the birth of knowledge.
Extracting the knowledge hidden in a person can be not only a method, but also a methodology of the whole education. In this case, the student is invited to build a trajectory of his education in each of the studied subjects, creating not only knowledge, but also personal goals of classes, programs of his own education, ways of mastering the topics studied, forms of presentation and evaluation of educational results. The student's personal experience becomes a component of his education, and the content of education is created in the process of his activity.
In pedagogy, heuristic learning was studied by P. F. Kapterev, V. I. Andreev, A. V. Khutorskaya, and the Living Example word technique formed in the second half of the 19th century in the journal A.A. is the oldest example of the use of heuristic techniques in Russian pedagogy. Khovansky "Philological notes."
In psychology, V. N. Pushkin, A. N. Luk, G. Ya. Bush paid attention to heuristic teaching methods.
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General psychology
Terms: General psychology