10.2. The French Revolution

Background of the revolution . In 1788-1789 in France, the socio-political crisis was growing. And the crisis in industry and commerce, and the crop failure in 1788, and the bankruptcy of the state treasury, ravaged by the wasteful spending of the court of Louis XVI (1754-1793), were not the main causes of the revolutionary crisis. The main reason that caused widespread, dissatisfaction with the whole state of affairs, was that the dominant feudal-absolutist system did not correspond to the tasks of the economic, social and political development of the country.

Approximately 99 percent of the population of France was the so-called third estate, and only one percent of the privileged classes were the clergy and nobility.

The third estate was heterogeneous in class terms. It consisted of the bourgeoisie, the peasantry, the urban workers, the artisans, the poor. All representatives of the third class were united by the complete lack of political rights and the desire to change the existing order. All of them did not want and could not continue to put up with the feudal absolutist monarchy.

After a series of unsuccessful attempts, the king had to announce the convocation of the General States — a meeting of representatives of the three estates that had not gathered for 175 years. The king and his entourage hoped with the help of the General States to calm public opinion, to obtain the necessary funds to replenish the treasury. The third estate connected with their convocation of hope for political changes in the country. From the very first days of the work of the General States, a conflict arose between the third estate and the first two because of the order of meetings and voting. On June 17, the Third Estate Assembly proclaimed itself the National Assembly, and on July 9, the Constituent Assembly, emphasizing its determination to establish a new social system in the country and its constitutional foundations. The king refused to recognize this act.

In Versailles and Paris, loyal to the king troops. Parisians spontaneously rose to the fight. By the morning of July 14, most of the capital was already in the hands of the insurgent people. On July 14, 1789, an armed mob liberated prisoners of the Bastille — a prison fortress. This day was the beginning of the Great French Revolution. In two weeks the old order was destroyed throughout the country. The royal power was replaced by the revolutionary bourgeois administration, the National Guard began to take shape.

Despite the difference in class interests, the bourgeoisie, the peasantry, and the urban plebeian society united in the struggle against the feudal absolutist system. Headed the movement of the bourgeoisie. The general impulse is reflected in the adoption by the Constituent Assembly on August 26 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. It proclaimed the sacred and inalienable human rights of the citizen and the freedom of the individual, freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, security and resistance to oppression. The right to property was also declared sacred and indestructible, a decree declaring all church property national was promulgated. The Constituent Assembly approved the new administrative division of the kingdom into 83 departments, destroyed the old class division and abolished all titles of the nobility and clergy, feudal duties, class privileges, abolished workshops. Proclaimed free enterprise. The adoption of these documents meant that the kingdom of the feudal absolutist monarchy came to an end.

Stages of the Revolution

Stages of the Revolution. However, in the course of the Revolution, the alignment of political forces in the struggle for a new polity changed.

In the history of the Great French Revolution, there are three stages; the first is July 14, 1779 - August 10, 1792; the second - August 10, 1772 - June 2, 1793; the third, highest stage of the revolution - June 2, 1793 - July 27/28, 1794.

At the first stage of the revolution, the big bourgeoisie and the liberal nobility seized power. They advocated a constitutional monarchy. Among them, the leading role was played by M. Lafayette (1757-1834), A. Barnav (1761-1793), A. Lamet.

In September 1791, Louis XVI signed the constitution elaborated by the Constituent Assembly, after which the country established a regime of constitutional monarchy; The Constituent Assembly dispersed, and the Legislative Assembly began to work.

The deep social upheavals that took place in the country intensified tensions between revolutionary France and the monarchist powers of Europe. England recalled her ambassador from Paris. The Russian Empress Catherine II (1729-1796) expelled the French attorney to Gene. The Spanish ambassador in Paris, Iriarte, demanded his credentials back, and the Spanish government began military maneuvers along the Pyrenees. The Ambassador of Holland was recalled from Paris.

Austria and Prussia formed an alliance with each other and declared that they would prevent the spread of everything threatening the monarchy in France and the security of all European powers. The threat of intervention forced France to be the first to declare war against them.

The war began with failures for the French troops. In connection with the difficult situation on the front, the Legislative Assembly proclaimed: "The Fatherland is in danger." In the spring of 1792, young sapper captain, poet and composer Claude Joseph Rouget de Lille (1760–1836), in a fit of inspiration, wrote the famous Marseillaise in one night , which later became the French national anthem.

On August 10, 1792, a popular uprising took place led by the Paris Commune. The second stage of the revolution began. In this period, the Paris Commune became the organ of the Paris city government, and in 1793-1794. was an important body of revolutionary power. It was headed by P.G. Shomett (1763-1794), J.R. Hebert (1757-1794) and others. The Commune closed many monarchist newspapers. She arrested former ministers, canceled property qualifications; all men over the age of 21 received voting rights.

Under the leadership of the Commune, a crowd of Parisians began to prepare for the assault on the Tuileries palace, in which the king was located. Without waiting for the assault, the king with his family left the palace and came to the Legislative Assembly.

Armed people seized the Tuileries Palace. The Legislative Assembly adopted a resolution on the removal of the king from power and the convening of a new supreme body of power - the National Convention (assembly). On August 11, 1792, the monarchy was virtually eliminated in France.

For the trial of the "criminals of August 10" (supporters of the king), the Legislative Assembly established the Extraordinary Tribunal.

September 20, two major events occurred. French troops inflicted the first defeat of the enemy troops in the Battle of Valmy. On the same day in Paris a new, revolutionary Assembly opened - the Convention.

At this stage of the revolution, the political leadership passed to the Girondists, representing mainly the republican commercial, industrial and agricultural bourgeoisie. The leaders of the Girondins were J.P. Brissot (1754-1793), P.V. Vernio (1753-1793), J.A. Condorcet (1743-1794). They constituted the majority in the Convention and were the right wing in the Assembly. They were opposed by the Jacobins, who formed the left wing. Among them were M. Robespierre (1758-1794), J.J. Danton (1759-1794), J.P. Marat (1743-1793). The Jacobins expressed the interests of the revolutionary-democratic bourgeoisie, which acted in alliance with the peasantry and plebeism.

A sharp struggle developed between the Jacobins and the Girondins. The Girondins were satisfied with the results of the revolution, opposed the execution of the king and opposed the further development of the revolution.

The Jacobins considered it necessary to deepen the revolutionary movement.

But the two decrees in the Convention were adopted unanimously: on the inviolability of property, on the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the Republic.

September 21 in France was proclaimed Republic (First Republic). The motto of the Republic was the slogan "Freedom, equality and fraternity."

The question that worried everyone then was the fate of the arrested King Louis XVI. The convention decided to judge him. On January 14, 1793, 387 deputies of the Convention out of 749 voted to give the king the death penalty. One of the deputies of the Convention Barer explained his participation in the voting as follows: “This process is an act of public salvation or a measure of public safety ...” On January 21, Louis XVI was executed, in October 1793, Queen Marie Antoinette was executed.

The execution of Louis XVI served as a pretext for expanding the anti-French coalition, which included England and Spain. Failures on the external front, the deepening of economic difficulties within the country, the increase in taxes all this shaken the position of the Girondins. Unrest intensified in the country, pogroms and murders began, and on May 31 - June 2, 1793 a popular uprising occurred.

From this event the third, highest stage of the Revolution takes its count. Power passed into the hands of the radical layers of the bourgeoisie, relying on the bulk of the urban population and the peasantry. At this point, the lower classes had the greatest impact on power. To save the revolution, the Jacobins considered it necessary to introduce an emergency regime - the Jacobin dictatorship took shape in the country.

A prerequisite for the Jacobins recognized the centralization of state power. The convention remained the highest legislative body. In his subordination was the government of 11 people - the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Robespierre. The Public Security Committee of the Convention to combat the counter-revolution was strengthened, the revolutionary tribunals became more active.

The position of the new government was difficult. War raged. In most departments of France, especially the Vendee, there were riots.

In the summer of 1793 a young noblewoman Charlotte Korde killed Marat, which had a serious impact on the course of further political events.

The most important events of the Jacobins. In June 1793, the Convention adopted a new constitution, in accordance with which France was declared a united and indivisible Republic; the supremacy of the people, equality of people in rights, broad democratic freedoms were consolidated. The property qualification was canceled when participating in elections to state bodies; all men over the age of 21 received voting rights. Conquer wars were condemned. This constitution was the most democratic of all French constitutions, but its introduction was delayed due to the state of emergency in the country.

The Committee of Public Safety carried out a number of important measures to reorganize and strengthen the army, thanks to which the Republic managed to create not only a large but also a well-armed army in a relatively short time. And by the beginning of 1794 the war was moved to the territory of the enemy. The revolutionary government of the Jacobins, leading and mobilizing the people, ensured victory over the external enemy - the troops of the European monarchist states - Prussia, Austria, etc.

In October 1793, the Convention introduced a revolutionary calendar. The beginning of a new era was announced on September 22, 1792 - the first day of the existence of the Republic. The month was divided into 3 decades, the months were named after their characteristic weather, vegetation, fruits, or agricultural work. Sunday days were abolished. Revolutionary holidays were introduced instead of Catholic holidays.

However, the alliance of the Jacobins was held by the necessity of a joint struggle against a foreign coalition and counter-revolutionary revolts within the country. When on the fronts the victory was won and the revolts were suppressed, the danger of the restoration of the monarchy diminished, the rollback of the revolutionary movement began. Among the Jacobins intensified internal divisions. So, from the autumn of 1793, Danton demanded a weakening of the revolutionary dictatorship, a return to constitutional order, and a rejection of the policy of terror. He was executed. Bottoms demanded a deepening of reforms. Most of the bourgeoisie, disgruntled by the policies of the Jacobins, who carried out the restrictive regime and dictatorial methods, adopted the position of counter-revolution, dragging large masses of peasants.

Not only the ordinary bourgeoisie did this, but the leaders of Lafayette, Barnave, Lameth, as well as the Girondists, joined the camp of the counter-revolution. The Jacobin dictatorship was increasingly losing popular support.

Using terror as the only method of resolving contradictions, Robespierre prepared his own doom and was doomed. The country and all the people were tired of the terror of the Jacobin terror, and all its opponents united in a single bloc. In the depths of the Convention matured a conspiracy against Robespierre and his supporters.

9 Thermidor (July 27), 1794 to conspirators J. Fouche (1759-1820), J.L. Talien (1767-1820), P. Barras (1755-1829) managed to carry out a coup, arrest Robespierre, overthrow the revolutionary government. “The republic perished, the kingdom of robbers has come,” were the last words of Robespierre in the Convention. 10 Thermidor Robespierre, Saint-Just, Couton and their closest associates were guillotined.

The conspirators, called Thermidorians, now used terror at their discretion. They released their supporters from imprisonment and imprisoned supporters of Robespierre. The Paris Commune was abolished immediately.

The outcome of the revolution is its meaning. In 1795, a new constitution was adopted, according to which power passed to the Directory and two councils - the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Elders. On November 9, 1799, the Council of Elders appointed Brigadier-General Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) as army commander. On November 10, the Directory regime was liquidated in a “legitimate” manner, a new state order was established. The consulate existed from 1799 to 1804.

The main results of the Great French Revolution:

1. 1. It consolidated and simplified the complex diversity of pre-revolutionary forms of ownership.

2. 2. The lands of many (but not all) nobles were sold to the peasants in installments for 10 years in small lots (parcels).

3. 3. The revolution has swept away all class barriers. Abolished the privileges of the nobility and the clergy and introduced equal social opportunities for all citizens. All this contributed to the expansion of civil rights in all European countries, the introduction of constitutions in countries that did not have them before.

4. 4. The revolution was held under the auspices of representative elected bodies: National Constituent Assembly (1789-1791), Legislative Assembly (1791-1792), Convention (1792-1794). This contributed to the development of parliamentary democracy, despite subsequent kickbacks.

5. 5. The revolution gave rise to a new state structure - a parliamentary republic.

6. 6. The guarantor of equal rights for all citizens is now the state.

7. 7. The financial system was transformed: the estate nature of taxes was abolished, the principle of their universality and proportionality to income or property was introduced. Proclaimed publicity of the budget.

If in France the process of capitalist development was going, although more slowly than in England, then in Eastern Europe the feudal mode of production and the feudal state were still strong and the ideas of the French revolution found a weak echo. In contrast to the epochal events taking place in France, the process of feudal reaction began in the east of Europe.