13. Leading countries of the world in the XIX century.

• International relations and the revolutionary movement in Europe in
XIX century.

• Bourgeois revolutions in the USA, Latin America, Japan

• Formation of industrial civilization

XIX century. in the historical process is a period of outstanding discoveries and radical changes in all areas of public life. This is the age of approval of a new, industrial type of civilization and the attainment of its maturity. This is the century of the formation of the core of states that are currently at the forefront of the world and in many respects determine the fate of the entire planet. This type of civilization was the result of three great events: the war for independence of the North American colonies, the industrial revolution that began in England in the XVIII century, and the French Revolution of 1789-1794. According to the philosopher X. Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955), democracy, experimental science and industrialization created a new field of human activity, a new situation in the world.

The most important signs of a new civilization were: in the field of experimental science and technology - the introduction of science into industrial production and agriculture, the use of a steam engine, the creation of a number of engines (water and steam turbines, an internal combustion engine), the development of a network of railway tracks, the development of ocean shipping, the invention radio, telegraph, telephone, the creation of a car and an aircraft, the development of electric power industry; in the military sphere - the growth of military equipment (firearms, smokeless powder, long-range artillery, the creation of armored ships (steam and diesel); in the social sphere - the accomplishment of bourgeois revolutions in several countries of Europe, America and Japan, the formation of new, main classes of capitalist society (bourgeoisie and the proletariat), their opposition, the emergence of the intelligentsia, in the spiritual - a sharp weakening of the influence of traditional religions, the growth of non-traditional ideologies, the formation of political parties, in the forms of government I am the formation of republics and constitutional monarchies, in international relations there is a complete colonial division of the world, the struggle for the redistribution of colonies, the armed rivalry of states, accompanied by tremendous destruction and human losses.

In the 19th century, important events took place: the formation of a new national state — the Italian kingdom (1860), the war of Prussia with Austria for hegemony in Germany (1866), the Franco-Prussian war and the formation of the united German Empire (1870–1871), the Paris Commune (1871) - the first attempt to establish the power of the proletariat.

13.1. International relations and the revolutionary movement in Europe in the XIX century

The establishment of the dictatorship of Napoleon and the aggressive wars of France. An obstacle to the development of capitalist relations in Europe at the end of the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth centuries. the feudal absolutist order continued. In many countries of Eastern Europe in the first half of the nineteenth century. the peasant's personal dependence on the landowner remained. The nobility showed consistency and firmness in the desire to retain power, and the young, growing bourgeoisie considered themselves disadvantaged. The final collapse of the feudal order was accompanied by acute class struggle, bourgeois revolutions. The degree of activity of such masses in the revolution (the peasantry, workers, urban and rural poor), their pressure provided more or less success of the revolution, their results and the nature of the elimination of feudalism and its remnants.

The great French revolution, which was an event of great significance, gave a powerful impetus to the development of capitalism. Her ideas, expressing common aspirations, spread throughout Europe.

Meanwhile, Napoleon Bonaparte, who became the first consul as the result of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799), began to pursue a policy in the interests of the big French bourgeoisie. Laws were passed that secured the property acquired by them during the years of the revolution, codes of laws on property, trade, and others supporting the development of capitalist industry were drawn up.

But the masses of the people were deprived of many rights won during the revolution: unions and strikes of workers were forbidden, and in court proceedings the testimony of the employer against the workers was taken on trust. In France, a regime of Thermidorian reaction was established, signifying the restoration of the privileges of the nobility and the establishment of bourgeois orders.

The main focus of Napoleon’s foreign policy was the war of conquest against the feudal monarchs. French troops won a series of victories over coalitions of European countries. In 1800, the victory was won in Northern Italy under Marengo. Signed in 1801 between France and Austria, the Luneville Peace marked the beginning of the domination of Napoleon in Europe. In 1805, 120 km from Vienna near the village of Austerlitz, Napoleon won one of his most brilliant victories over the Austrian and Russian troops, the French seized all the artillery, carts and about 20 thousand prisoners. In the battle, about 15 thousand Russian soldiers were killed. In December 1805, a new peace treaty was signed between France and Austria in Presburg (Russia did not participate in the negotiations).

Having liquidated the Holy Roman Empire, Napoleon united 16 German states into the Rhine Union and became its protector. On October 14, 1806, on the same day, Napoleon won two battles with Prussian troops, at Jena and Auerstadt. He solemnly entered Berlin, and in November 1806 signed a decree on the continental blockade, directed against England.

The foreign policy of Napoleon’s government became increasingly aggressive, especially after 1804, when he was proclaimed "emperor of the French" and the monarchy was restored. This made the international situation in Europe tense. In the ongoing war of France against Russia, battles took place in February at Preuisch Eylau and in June 1807 near Friedland. Russia was forced to sign a heavy Tilsit world, which gave Napoleon freedom of action in Western Europe, and Alexander I in the North and South-East of Europe. Russia joined the continental blockade and agreed to a defensive and offensive military alliance with France against England. The Tilsit world caused great damage to the development of the economy and the international prestige of Russia.

1807-1812 were the heyday of the Bonaparte empire. The countries of Western Europe, with the exception of England, were conquered by Napoleon. Russia stood in the way of the establishment of a pan-European hegemony by France. Without a victory over Russia, France seemed to Napoleon insufficiently strong and powerful (see Chapter 14).

The defeat of the Napoleonic Empire. Russia's victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 gave a powerful impetus to the rise of the liberation struggle of the enslaved peoples of Europe. In January 1813, a new military campaign began against France. In the campaigns of 1813-1815. against the Napoleonic empire participated: England, Prussia, Sweden, Austria, who took the side of the victorious Russia. In the four-day battle of Leipzig (October 1813), which went down in history as the “Battle of the Nations”, the combined armies of the Allies inflicted a crushing defeat on Napoleon. March 18, 1814 Paris capitulated, the Allied forces headed by Alexander I entered the French capital. In France, the overthrown revolution of 1789-1794 was restored. monarchy of the Bourbons. Napoleon’s attempt to rebuild his empire ended in the collapse of the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815.

The post-war political map of Europe was determined by the Paris Peace Treaty. The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) decided the fate of the Duchy of Warsaw, most of which, like the Kingdom of Poland, ceded to Russia, and consolidated the political fragmentation of Germany and Italy. Europe was to re-experience the period of absolutist reaction, which was most clearly manifested in the creation of the Holy Alliance of Monarchs of Russia, Austria, Prussia, supported by England. In Europe, a time of relative peace came, which was explained by the exhaustion and fatigue of European peoples from the most difficult wars, which lasted for 25 years with short breaks, and the faith of the reactionary, conservative governments in the strength of the established monarchical order. However, the Holy Alliance, whose members led by Russia performed gendarme functions, could not destroy the results and impact of the French Revolution, as well as eliminate the socio-economic and political prerequisites of revolutions and national liberation movements.

Spanish Revolution. In 1820, a revolution broke out in Spain. Ferdinand VII, restored by the decision of the Congress of Vienna on the Spanish throne, ignored the 1812 constitution, reinstated the absolutist system in the country, returned land ownership to the monasteries, and revived the inquisition. Tens of thousands of people accused of political crimes ended up in prison. In response to the actions of the monarch, the activities of secret opposition societies intensified, conspiracies were ripe, unrest began. In Cadiz, a rebellion broke out, which was to be sent to Latin America to crack down on the fighters for liberation from the Spanish yoke. Although Ferdinand VII soon swore allegations to the constitution, the rebels did not stop fighting. The French troops, imposed by the decision of the Verona Congress of the Holy Alliance, suppressed a two-year revolution.

The Spanish Revolution contributed to the rise of revolutionary uprisings in neighboring Portugal. In Lisbon and other cities in 1820 an uprising occurred. A provisional government was formed, the Cortes (parliament) was convened, which drafted the country's constitution, which was recognized by King John VI. However, after his death, Miguel (1802–1866), who proclaimed himself king, cruelly punished the supporters of the constitution, dispersed the Cortes, and restored absolutism in the country.

Greek uprising. In 1821, the Greeks revolted against vassal dependence on Turkey. The uprising was led by AlexanderIpsilanti - a participant in the Patriotic War of 1812, Major General of the Russian Army. Alexander I did not dare to assist the Greeks. The uprising in northern Greece was soon put down. However, in the south of Greece, the islands of the archipelago, a more formidable uprising broke out. In January 1822, the National Assembly was established, which approved the independence of Greece and republican rule. Turkey, with the support of the Egyptian Pasha, carried out a massacre of the Greeks, which aroused the sympathy of the advanced people of Europe for the fighting Greeks. England and France offered Nicholas I to send the Russian fleet to the shores of Greece. In the Bay of Navarino, the combined Anglo-French-Russian fleet in 1827 defeated the Turkish-Egyptian fleet. Under these conditions, Turkey, which considered Russia its main adversary, declared war on it, culminating in the World of Adrianople (1829). The independence of Greece with the republican system was recognized. In 1832, the republican form of government was replaced by the constitutional monarchy.

In 1820 there was a revolution in the kingdom of Neapolitan, in 1821 - in Piedmont.

In the middle of the XIX century. the performances of the working class, the peasantry, the struggle of the industrial bourgeoisie for power shook Europe. It should be noted an important feature of the revolutionary movement of this period - the simultaneity of revolutions in a number of European states.

February Revolution in France. In France, many feudal orders were destroyed during the revolution of 1789-1794. The established regime of the July monarchy (1830-1848) was in the interests of only the financial bourgeoisie, aroused the hatred of the broad masses of the peasantry and workers, and the discontent of the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie. The general dissatisfaction with the policies of the government of Louis-Philippe (1773–1850) was exacerbated by the lean years of the 1940s, the crisis of overproduction in 1847. All this caused a new revolution in France, called the February Revolution (1848). Finding no way to resolve the crisis in the country, to stop the barricade battles on the streets of Paris, Louis-Philippe was forced to abdicate. France was proclaimed a Republic, a provisional government was created, universal suffrage for men was introduced, working hours for workers were reduced to 10-11 hours, taxes on landowners were increased. However, the provisional government was unable to fulfill the other demands of the workers and the urban poor. The actions of the provisional government and the elected National Assembly, which were essentially a movement back, led in June 1848 to a widespread anti-government uprising of the workers of Paris, which was brutally suppressed by the troops. The power was handed over to President Louis Napoleon, who on December 2, 1851 ordered the arrest and imprisonment of political figures dangerous for him and the troops to take government offices. It was a coup d'état. In response, in a number of cities, thousands of supporters of the Republic went to the barricades, but the troops quickly put down the uprising. The revolution was defeated. In 1852, Louis Napoleon proclaimed himself Napoleon III, Emperor of France. The Second Empire was established in the country (1852-1870).

Revolutions in Austria, Germany , Italy . Following France, the revolution took place in Austria, Germany, and Italy. In the middle of the XIX century. The Austrian Empire was a multinational state in which more than half of the population was Slavs. The destruction of national and feudal oppression, the conquest of independence by the oppressed peoples, the overthrow of the Habsburg monarchy were the most important tasks of the bourgeois revolution of 1848-1849. in Austria. Revolutionary speeches broke out simultaneously in Vienna, Bohemia, Hungary, the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. To stop the revolution, Ferdinand I ousted Chancellor A. Metternich (1773-1859), who personified the reaction. A law was passed to introduce universal suffrage for men; peasants achieved the abolition of serfdom. In Hungary, in addition to the Hungarians, the Slavic peoples took an active part in the revolutionary movement. But in early 1849, with the introduction of the 80,000-strong Russian army into Hungary under the command of General I. Paskevich (1782-1856), the revolution was suppressed.

With the fall of the Napoleonic Empire in 1815, the Prussian state was the most powerful state of fragmented Germany. Industry developed more rapidly in the western regions of Prussia (Westphalia, Rhine Province, Saxon Kingdom and Silesia). The surviving bourgeois laws introduced by Napoleon ensured the intensive development of capitalism in the Rhineland province, where the textile industry developed; Coal mining increased in the Ruhr, the number of metallurgical and weapons factories increased. Since the 40s. in Germany, railway construction was gaining momentum. Locomotive-building factories arose in Berlin. However, in general, in the development of industry, Germany lagged far behind England and France.

In Germany, personally free peasants paid large monetary duties to landowners. For 30 years (since 1815), only 1/4 of all peasants were able to use the permission for the redemption of duties. Prussian landowners, who owned more than half of the land, developed large capitalist farms based on the use of labor of farm laborers.

The further development of capitalism was hampered by political fragmentation, absolute monarchies in most German states, internal customs duties, and arbitrariness of officials and landowners. All this was the reasons for the revolution of 1848-1849. in Germany. The main task of the revolution is the destruction of feudal fragmentation and the political unification of the country.

The revolution in Germany began in March 1848 with mass demonstrations in Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Bavaria, Württemberg. In Berlin, workers fought barricade battles with troops and police, which ended in victory for the rebels. A liberal government was formed. The victory of the Berlin workers and artisans caused the rise of the workers and peasants movement. In May 1848, the Prussian National Assembly was elected. Meanwhile, the uprising in Baden, raised by the petty-bourgeois democrats in April 1846, was suppressed. The German bourgeoisie began to move into the camp of counter-revolution. In November, the Prussian king formed a new government out of the big feudal lords and the highest bureaucracy, which did nothing to liberate the peasants from feudal duties and ease the position of the workers.

In May 1849, uprisings began in Saxony, the Rhine Province, Baden and other areas of Germany in defense of the constitution adopted in March 1849 by the Frankfurt National Assembly and rejected by the Government of Prussia and some other German states. Revolutionary uprisings were suppressed. This meant the defeat of the revolution in Germany. In the early 50s. XIX century. in Prussia, the reactionary regime was established.

Education of the German Empire

The formation of the German Empire. During the revolution in Germany, the question was raised about the national unification of the country, about the structure of a united Germany. The difficult question was about under whose auspices the unification of Austria or Prussia would take place. Most of the German bourgeoisie supported the plan to create a “Little Germany”, i.e. German unions under the auspices of the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty without Austria.

In 1862, Otto von Bismarck was appointed head of the government of Prussia. (1815-1898), бундесканцлер, ответственный лишь перед президентом Северо-Германского союза, которым являлся король Пруссии. Бисмарк приступил к объединению Германии «железом и кровью». Первыми шагами в объединительном процессе стали войны Пруссии с Данией в 1864 г. и Австрией в 1866 г. По Пражскому миру государства Ганновер, Гессен, Нассау, Франкфурт были присоединены к Пруссии. Австрия устранилась от участия в решении германских вопросов. Пражский мир также предусматривал создание Северо-Германского союза из государств, расположенных севернее р. Майн. Пруссия теперь стала неоспоримым лидером национального объединения Германии. Россия соблюдала нейтралитет и облегчала этим объединительный процесс Пруссии. В образованном в 1867 г. Северо-Германском союзе Пруссия играла главенствующую роль, которая обеспечивалась прежде всего передачей ей командования над союзными войсками.

Интересы буржуазии были поддержаны введением полной свободы передвижения, единой системы мер и весов, отменой остатков цеховых привилегий, что открывало более широкие возможности для успешного развития капитализма и укрепляло союз буржуазии с правительственными кругами. Однако буржуазия фактически не получила доступа к политической власти. Остатки феодализма продолжали сказываться в различных областях жизни.

Военные и политические успехи Пруссии пугали Францию. Правительство Наполеона III сочло своевременным в 1870 г. начать против Пруссии войну. Пруссия оказалась более подготовленной к войне, чем Франция. Если Пруссия мобилизовала свыше 1 млн. чел., то французская армия после мобилизации насчитывала 500 тыс. чел. Превосходило количественно и качественно и вооружение прусской армии.

На первом этапе Франко-прусская война являлась для немцев исторически прогрессивной, так как они стремились завершить национальное объединение Германии. Франция же ставила целью задержать объединение германских государств в единое государство и сохранить за собой преобладающее влияние в Европе.

4 августа 1870 г. германские войска начали общее наступление. Франция сразу же стала терпеть неудачи. В сражении в районе Седана численно превосходившие немецкие войска нанесли сокрушительный удар французской армии. 2 сентября по приказу Наполеона III седанская крепость капитулировала. С сентября 1870 г. характер Франко-прусской войны меняется. Теперь Франция ведет освободительную войну, а Германия захватническую, – она стремится к отторжению от Франции Эльзаса и Лотарингии.

27 октября 1870 г. без боя маршал А. Баэен (1811-1888) сдал крепость Мец со 180-тысячным войском. С капитуляцией французов освободились значительные силы противника для обеспечения осады Парижа. 18 января 1871 г. Вильгельм I (1797-1888) во дворце французских королей Версале в торжественной обстановке был провозглашен наследным королем Германской империи.

Страх перед революционными выступлениями рабочих вынудил французское правительство на скорейшее заключение мира. 28 января было подписано перемирие на тяжелых условиях. Мирный договор, заключенный 10 мая 1871 г., был еще более тяжелым. Франция обязывалась выплатить 5 млрд. франков контрибуции, уступала Германии Эльзас и северо-восточную часть Лотарингии.

Победа Пруссии над Францией довершила дело объединения Германии в единое государство – Германскую империю.

Завершение объединения Германии произошло «сверху», в ходе захватнической войны. Прусское юнкерство (крупные земельные собственники) в объединительном процессе выступило господствующей силой, в которой огромную роль играла политика милитаризма. Те немецкие государства, которые оставались вне Северо-Германского союза, были подчинены Бисмарком Пруссии. Германская империя объединила 22 германские монархии и три вольных города Любек, Бремен и Гамбург. В апреле 1871 г. была принята конституция Германии, утверждавшая федеративное государственное устройство страны.

The national unification of Germany was a progressive phenomenon, contributing to the further development of capitalism in the country. However, the form of association led by the Prussian monarchy was reactionary and dangerous for the peoples of Europe. The triumph of Germany turned its military forces into an important tool of domestic and foreign policy. The ruling circles have put forward the goal of Germany’s breakthrough to world domination.

National Association of Italy

Национальное объединение Италии. Политическая раздробленность Италии, произвол чиновников, полиции, монополия дворянства на власть, феодальная зависимость крестьян от помещиков служили тормозом дальнейшего развития капитализма и вызывали общее недовольствие буржуазии, широких народных масс и толкали их на революционную борьбу. Главным вопросом революционного движения 1848-1849 гг. были освобождение страны от австрийского гнета и политическое объединение мелких государств в единое централизованное государство. В начале 1848 г. революция охватила Неаполитанское королевство, затем распространилась на Ломбардию, Венецианскую область.

Решить задачу объединения Италии путем национально-освободительной войны с участием широких народных масс призывали Джузеппе Мадзини (1805-1872), основатель «Молодой Италии», и Джузеппе Гарибальди (1807-1882), ставший впоследствии национальным героем Италии. В начале 1849 г. в Риме вспыхнуло восстание. Созванное учредительное собрание провозгласило Рим Республикой. Однако Австрия, Франция и Неаполь двинули на Рим войска и овладели им. Революция 1848-1849 гг. в Италии потерпела поражение, но несмотря на это, революция оказала большое воздействие на ход событий, побуждая массы на дальнейшую борьбу против австрийского ига, за национальное объединение страны.

In the late 50s. XIX century. в движении за объединение страны четко определились два направления: революционно-демократическое, виднейшим деятелем которого являлся Дж. Гарибальди, и умеренное во главе с премьер-министром Сардинского королевства К. Кавуром (1810-1861), опиравшимся на либеральную буржуазию и помещиков. Союзником Сардинского королевства стала Франция, которая сблизилась с ним в период Крымской войны (1853-1856). В войне Сардинии против Австрии (1859-1870) приняло участие французское войско, при котором находился император Наполеон III. Австрийские войска начали терпеть неудачи, в ряде итальянских государств произошли восстания против австрийцев. Парма, Моден и Тоскана присоединились к Сардинии. Австрийцы потерпели поражение у деревни Сольферино. По мирному договору, подписанному в 1859 г. в Цюрихе, к Сардинскому королевству отходила только Ломбардии, а Франция получила Савойю и Ниццу. Ответом на действия Наполеона III стал революционный подъем в Италии.

Volunteers under the leadership of G. Garibaldi in 1860 conquered Sicily. The territory of the Sardinian kingdom has expanded considerably. In 1861, the formation of the Italian kingdom was proclaimed, which included Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany and other regions of Italy. It remained to join the kingdom of Venice and the Papal States with Rome. Attempts to seize Rome by Garibaldi’s detachment in 1862 and 1867 ended in failure. Meanwhile, Austria, defeated in the war with Prussia in 1866, was forced to abandon the Venetian region. The fall of the Second Empire in France in 1870 facilitated the complete unification of Italy: French troops left Rome. The Italian government moved troops against the Papal States and occupied Rome. The capital of the Italian kingdom in 1871 was Rome.

Thus, during the national liberation war (1859-1870), the tasks of liberating the north-eastern part of Italy from the Austrian yoke and creating a national state in the form of a monarchy were solved.