14. Russia in the XIX century.

• Political and socio-economic development of Russia at the beginning
XIX century.

• Russia of the era of Nicholas I

• Russia in the second half of the XIX century.

XIX century. - the time of the establishment of capitalism in Russia. The process of its development was carried out not only after 1861, but also in the first half of the century. The main requirements, under the sign of which Russia was to pass in the 19th century, were the restriction of autocracy and the abolition of serfdom. Since the beginning of the century, the issue of peasant reform was considered by both the tsarist government and the radical nobility and liberal circles of Russian society. In search of ways to resolve contradictions, the representatives of the younger generation demanded changes in the socio-political system, freedom of the individual and property, and the transition to the constitutional order.

14.1. The political and socio - economic development of Russia at the beginning of the XIX century.

The reforms of Alexander I. In the first quarter of the XIX century. Russia was at the crossroads between the autocratic-serf system and the search for new forms of organization of socio-economic and political life. This controversial and difficult period of Russian history is associated with the reign of Alexander I (1777-1825). Emperor Alexander I, who entered the throne after the assassination of Paul I in 1801, inherited a complex internal and external state of the country.

By the beginning of the XIX century. Russia was one of the largest states in Europe. The main branch of the economy was agriculture, which is developing extensively. 95% of the population lived in the village and was engaged in agricultural work. The land continued to be the monopoly property of the landowners and the state. The serfs for the use of the allotment of land carried duties - serfdom and dues. In the central industrial regions of the country, the process of peasant farms to manufactories spread. Some landowners sought to use hired labor, new technical means and grow industrial crops in their own farms in order to obtain more marketable products.

The development of industry, despite the general growth in the number of enterprises, was not high. The importance of peasant handicrafts. The number of enterprises where mainly hired labor was used increased. By 1825 already more than half of the workers in the capitalist industry were civilian. The merchants expanded their rights. All this contributed to the development of capitalist relations, but the rates of development of industry and agriculture were low.

Alexander I understood that the economic and sociopolitical systems of Russia need serious modernization. In the first months of his reign, he took a number of measures in domestic political life: the Secret Expedition was destroyed, the use of torture in court proceedings and corporal punishment of noblemen and merchants were prohibited, free travel abroad, the importation of books, the opening of private printing houses were allowed, many prisoners from the Peter and Paul Fortress were released .

Meeting the needs of the nobility, focused on the European market, the government in 1802 allowed to conduct duty-free trade through the port of Odessa. At the same time, a provision was approved on the duty-free import of machinery for the Russian industry and agriculture. In 1801 a decree was adopted, according to which all persons of a free position (merchants, state peasants) were given the right to buy land. This decree first began the destruction of the monopoly of the nobility on the land. In 1803, a decree was issued on free bread-growers, according to which the nobles, at their own discretion, could release the serfs for a considerable ransom to the will. But under Alexander I, only 47 thousand serf souls were released.

A plan was drawn up for liberal transformations in the country, in the development of which a large role was played by an unspoken committee composed of P.A. Stroganov (1772-1817), V.P. Kochubey (1768-1834), N.N. Novosiltsev (1768-1834), A. Chartoryi (1700-1861). The first attempts at restructuring government and public relations suffered incompleteness, and the international situation and Russia's participation in coalitions against France in 1805 and 1806-1807. forced Alexander I to temporarily move away from domestic political problems.

Russian foreign policy. The voluntary accession of Georgia to Russia in 1801 caused an aggravation of Russian-Iranian relations. In 1804, Iran began military actions against Russia. The war, which turned out to be protracted, ended successfully for Russia. By Gulistan Peace (1813), North Azerbaijan and Dagestan were ceded to Russia. In 1806, Ottoman Turkey, supported by France, launched a war against Russia. For a long time, the war did not bring success to the Russians. Appointed in 1811 by the commander of the Danube army M.I. Kutuzov (1745-1813) in the battle of Ruschuk (June 1811) delivered a crushing blow to the Sultan's army, and managed to lure significant enemy forces to the left bank of the Danube, where they were surrounded by the Russians and surrendered. Under the Bucharest Treaty, signed in May 1812, Bessarabia was ceded to Russia and the right of merchant shipping throughout the Danube was consolidated. Russia also secured the granting of Serbia internal self-government.

The Russian government sought to use the Tilzitsky peace with France to strengthen its position on the Baltic Sea. The war with Sweden (1808–1809) ended with the Frikhsgam treaty, in which Finland owned by Sweden was annexed to Russia as the Grand Duchy of Finland. The border of Russia was significantly moved away from St. Petersburg to the West.

Reforms of public administration. Replaced by the Secret Committee MM. Speransky (1772-1839), an educated man, with a colossal ability to work, later appointed by the Secretary of State (1821), developed a broad program of state reforms. The program set out in the “Introduction to the Laying of State Laws” provided for the creation in the country of representative bodies from top to bottom, equalization of all classes before the law, approval of the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. The essence of the Speransky transformation program was the creation of a bourgeois-type monarchy in Russia, the establishment of a rule of law state. However, Speransky’s program was not fully implemented and could not be implemented due to the lack of objective conditions in Russian reality and Alexander I’s fear of the nobility and the aggressiveness of conservative forces. This predetermined the collapse of attempts MM. Speransky transform Russia ¹ .

And nevertheless, some of the provisions of his program managed to bring to life. January 1, 1810 opened the transformed State Council - an advisory body, whose members were appointed by the emperor. Ministries were transformed (their number reached 11), the structure, functions of ministries and the responsibility of ministers were defined.

Alexander I also carried out reforms in the field of education. It was established six educational districts headed by a trustee, formed county schools, provincial gymnasiums and universities - Derpt, Kharkov, Kazan. These events contributed to the creation of the national education system, the emergence of a stratum of European-educated nobility and the penetration of liberal ideas into its environment. Revolutionary liberalism was born in Russia.

The reforms carried out by Alexander I at the beginning of his reign did not lead to significant changes in the political system of Russian society. Moreover, they contributed to the further strengthening of the autocratic system and, in fact, were aimed at creating a liberal image of Russia in Europe. This explains the more radical nature of the transformations in the western part of the country — the Baltic States and Finland. ² M.M. Speransky was dismissed from his post, and in 1812 he was exiled to Nizhny Novgorod, and then further still to Perm.

Patriotic War of 1812

Patriotic War of 1812 Napoleon’s aggressive plans for Russia were becoming frank. Alexander I, who repeatedly tried to obtain peace from France to uphold rights in international relations, set the task of freeing the conquered countries from Napoleon’s rule and establishing public order in accordance with the will of their peoples. These plans were formulated in a secret note — instructions of September 11, 1804, and formed the basis of his international policy.

1807-1812 were the heyday of the French Bonaparte empire. The countries of Western Europe, with the exception of England, were conquered by Napoleon. Russia stood in the way of establishing European pan-European hegemony. Without a victory over Russia, France seemed insufficiently strong and powerful. “In five years I will be the master of the world; Russia alone remains, but I will crush it, ”said Bonaparte on the eve of the war with Russia, in 1811.

The war of 1812 between France and Russia was not unexpected. Both sides began to prepare for it from 1810. The international situation favored France. In the first months of 1812 Napoleon signed military agreements with Prussia and Austria, which pledged to provide Napoleon with his troops.

In January 1812, Napoleon ordered the beginning of the concentration of the Great Army ¹ at the western borders of Russia. By the spring behind the Elbe, four army corps were concentrated.

Russia could not be compared in terms of population and size of material resources under the rule of France. The number of troops in France and Russia, introduced into the war, was in the ratio of 600 thousand French and 320 thousand Russian.

June 12, 1812 The Great Army invaded Russia. The Russian people and the army entered the fair, national war. France sought to defeat Russia, dismember it and turn it into a third-rate country, into a source of raw materials for France. Napoleon planned to encircle and destroy the Russian army in a general battle immediately, at the first border checkpoint, but the Russians retreated, French troops quickly moved into the depths of Russia. Already in the first days of the war, Napoleon occupied Vilna, Vitebsk, Minsk and other cities. He sought to smash the First and the Second Russian armies torn apart from one another by parts. Therefore, the connection of P.I.’s armies was vital for Russia . Bagration (1765-1812) and M.G. Barclay de Tolly (1761-1818). Unite army in Vitebsk failed. It was decided to carry out a plan to connect armies in Smolensk. Division D.P. Neverovsky (1771-1813) and the corps N.N. Raevsky (1771-1829) restrained the enemy on the approaches to Smolensk, to give two armies the opportunity to join up. In a two-day battle, the French lost 20 thousand soldiers and officers, the Russian 6 thousand. On August 2, both armies joined. Thus collapsed and the second strategic plan of Napoleon.

However, the Russian troops were forced to retreat again. The withdrawal of Russian troops inland was the only correct tactic of warfare, which was followed by the commander of the Russian army Barclay de Tolly. However, his method of warfare was not understood either by the army or by society or the emperor. M.I. Kutuzov (1745-1813), who assumed the duties of commander-in-chief, understood that it would not be possible to save Moscow, but to accept the battle was inevitable. He made the decision to give battle 120 km from Moscow, near the village of Borodino.

Near Borodino there were 120 thousand Russians with 624 guns and 140 thousand French with 587 guns. The Russian troops were tasked with undermining the military power and the morale of the enemy, and exhausting him. In the morning of August 26, a frontal battle began. Both sides showed heroism and great efforts to achieve victory. Positions several times passed from one army to another. Years later, reflecting on the battle of Borodino, Napoleon said: "Of the 50 battles I have given, the most valor was shown in the battle of Moscow and the least success was won ... the French showed themselves worthy to win, and the Russians were defeated to be undefeated."

In the battle of Borodino, which became a turning point in the Patriotic War of 1812, the forces of the Napoleonic army were broken. “I won the battle to Moscow”, - this is how I appreciated the importance of the battle of Borodino M.I. Kutuzov. Here was the beginning of the end of the war on the territory of Russia and the beginning of the liberation of Europe from Napoleonic rule.

On September 1, at the military council in Fili, Kutuzov ordered the army to retreat and surrender Moscow to the enemy without a fight. With the loss of Moscow, Russia is still not lost, but when the army is destroyed, Moscow and Russia will perish, ”said Kutuzov in the further course of the war.

In the guerrilla war, which began immediately with the invasion of the enemy on Russian territory, which the commander-in-chief gave an organized character, the units of serfs were headed by personnel officers: D. Davydov (1784-1839), A. Seslavin (1780-1858), A. Figner (1787- 1813). There were also detachments led by the peasants themselves - G. Kurina, V. Kozhina, E. Chetvertakova, and others.

Napoleon with the troops on September 2, 1812 occupied an almost empty Moscow. The city began fires that destroyed 3/4 buildings. The invaders were left without food and shelter. Napoleon's army thawed disastrously, losing morale. In busy Moscow, Napoleon had been waiting for a peace request for more than a month, but it did not follow, Alexander I said: "... lasting peace can only be signed in Paris." October 7, Napoleon left Moscow.

After deceiving the enemy with an imaginary retreat along the Ryazan road, Kutuzov in the area of ​​Krasnaya Pakhry turned onto the Kaluga road and with the main forces approached the village of Tarutino. This was the so-called Tarutinsky maneuver. Here, the army was replenished with fresh forces, weapons, and in early October launched an offensive, striking the French (on the avant-garde of I. Murat on the Chernishna River, north of Tarutino - on October 6 and on Maloyaroslavets - on October 12). The road to Kaluga Napoleon was closed. His plan to winterize in Ukraine, and then start a new campaign against the Russians, was foiled. The remnants of the Great Army had to retreat along the old, ravaged Smolensk road, suffering huge losses. Through r. The miserable remnants of Napoleon's army (30 thousand people) crossed the Berezina. The Manifesto on the expulsion of the French from the territory of Russia said: "The war ended with the complete extermination of the enemy."

Neither England, nor Austria, nor Prussia, nor other states of Europe could beat Napoleon. This was done by Russia, which, by extinguishing Bonaparte expansion, saved Europe, as in the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Position of Russia after the war. Decembrist movement

Position of Russia after the war. Decembrist movement. The Patriotic War of 1812, which interrupted the reform of Russia, was accompanied by economic ruin. The material losses of Russia amounted to 1 billion rubles, and the budget deficit reached 531 million rubles. The tsarist government could not and did not want to take any effective measures to restore the economy and provide assistance to peasant farms. The devastation caused by the war was an additional reason for the growth of spontaneous peasant unrest. The most significant were the performances of peasants on the Don. Peasants ’speeches against landowners during the famine years of 1820-1822 increased The peasants demanded liberation from serfdom. The spontaneous unrest of the working people merged with the peasant movement. There were unrest at the factories of the Batashevs in the Vladimir province (1822), and at the Ural factories of the Rastorguevs (1822-1823).

Increased unrest in the army. In October 1820, in St. Petersburg, one of the largest was the unrest of the soldiers of the Semenov regiment, who were protesting against the difficult conditions of service and feudal oppression.

Alexander I, who believed that in the war it was the ideal of autocracy that helped consolidate the Russian people, he sought to use the victory over Napoleon in order to consolidate the autocratic-serf system. In the years 1815-1825. Alexander I’s domestic policy is marked by increased reaction, a rejection of liberal reforms. The chief conductor of this policy was the chairman of the military department of the State Council, A.A. Arakcheev (1769-1834), cruel and rude adviser to the emperor. The peculiarity of the policy was manifested in the creation, at the initiative of the tsar, of military settlements as a new form of recruitment and maintenance of the Russian army. The endless muttra, hard work, countless punishments, the lack of power of the villagers evoked hatred of military-serf oppression.

In the last years of the reign of Alexander I, the arbitrariness of the police and the bureaucracy intensified, censorship raged, the discussion of political issues and reporting on court trials in the press were banned.

The result of the reactionary policy was a split between the people and the government, part of the noble intelligentsia and tsarism. The idea of ​​modernizing Russia was opposed to the idea of ​​strengthening the autocracy. Radically minded nobility, among whom were many officers who went through the Patriotic War and foreign campaigns, lost hope for a peaceful transformation of the country, it began to search for the possibility of transforming Russia through the violent overthrow of the tsar’s power and the establishment of a democratic form of government. A revolutionary ideology was born in Russia. In practice, it manifested itself in the Decembrist uprising in 1825 on Senatskaya Square in St. Petersburg.

The Decembrists are mostly noble military youth who have mastered the ideas of Western liberalism about people's sovereignty, the liberation of the individual, civil liberties.

The first secret society appeared in 1816. It was the Union of Salvation, which, after the adoption of the statute, was named the Society of True and Faithful Sons of the Fatherland. But the lack of uniform tactics and ideological differences in society led to its early elimination. The second secret society that emerged in 1818 - the Union of Welfare -existed almost openly, and its members pinned the hope of achieving reform through peaceful means. However, with the growing discontent of the oppressed masses and the growing revolutionary movement in European countries, supporters of a decisive and open attack on the autocracy began to predominate in the Union. In January 1821, the congress of the Root Public Administration of the society (the governing body) declared the Union dissolved, which ensured the elimination of unreliable and vacillating members. The secret society was reorganized: in 1821, the Southern Society emerged in Ukraine , headed by P.I. Pestel (1793-1826), and in 1822 in St. Petersburg - the Northern Society, the most influential member of which was N.М. Ants (1796-1843).

"Russian Truth" Pestel. "Constitution" N. Muravyev. Program document of the Southern Society " Russian Truth" ,designed by Pestel, was quite radical. He envisaged the overthrow of the autocracy and the establishment of the dictatorship of the Provisional Government for a period of 10 years as the decisive condition for the victory of the revolution and the implementation of reforms. Serfdom and class system were subject to decisive destruction, the equality of all citizens before the law was declared, the republican system was established in the country. Peasants received land free of charge (50% of all land was intended for peasant holdings). This land was not subject to sale, it could only be used to obtain the "necessary product". The other half of the land, which constituted state and the remaining privately owned, was intended for the production of "abundance" of products. The Legislature was supposed to be the National Council,executive power was exercised by the State Duma of five members. Control over the observance of the constitution was awarded to the Supreme Council, elected for life.

According to the “ Constitution” of N. Muravyov, Russia was declared a constitutional monarchy. The peasants were freed from serfdom with an allotment of two acres per yard and farmstead land. Established the equality of all citizens before the law. However, only those who owned relatively large immovable or movable property received full political rights. Russia became a federation consisting of 15 powers. The supreme body of the federal government was declared the People's Chamber - a bicameral parliament. Executive power belonged to the emperor, who was the supreme official of the state.

Russkaya Pravda and the Constitution contained a program of bourgeois reforms in Russia.

Восстание декабристов. Восстание должно было начаться летом 1826 г., однако выступление декабристов было ускорено смертью Александра I в ноябре 1825 г. В стране установилось междуцарствие из-за неразберихи в присяге новому императору ¹ . Переприсяга Николаю I была назначена на 14 декабря 1825г.

Обстановкой кризиса власти и решили воспользоваться декабристы: вывести войска на Сенатскую площадь, помешать присяге Николаю I и потребовать у членов Сената и Государственного совета обнародовать «Манифест к русскому народу», в котором провозглашались отмена крепостного права, политические и гражданские права и свободы, вводилась всеобщая воинская повинность и облегчалось положение солдат. Но восстание не было подготовлено, Сенат и большая часть Петербургского гарнизона уже присягнули Николаю I. Находящиеся на площади солдаты и офицеры были разогнаны артиллерийским огнем.

29 декабря восстал Черниговский полк на Украине, но восстание было разгромлено. Николай I, проявивший жандармские способности, возглавил следствие по делу декабристов. К следствию и суду привлекались 579 человек, большинство из которых были военными. Расправа была жестокой: П.И. Пестель, С.И. Муравьев-Апостол (1795-1826), М.П. Бестужев-Рюмин (1803-1826), П.Г. Каховский (1797-1826), К.Ф. Рылеев (1795-1826) были повешены, свыше ста декабристов сосланы в Сибирь на каторгу или поселение, некоторые офицеры разжалованы в солдаты и направлены на Кавказ. На Кавказ был направлен также штрафной Черниговский полк.

Говоря о значении восстания декабристов, В.О. Ключевский отмечал: «Декабристы важны не как заговор, не как тайное общество, это нравственно-общественный симптом, вскрывший обществу недуги, которых оно само в себе не подозревало; это целое настроение, охватившее широкие круги, а не 121 человек только, признанных виновными и осужденных по нескольким степеням виновности» ² .

The Decembrists were the first Russian noble revolutionaries who openly opposed autocracy. The defeat of the Decembrists further increased the contradiction between the government and the noble intelligentsia. The speech of the Decembrists was not understood by the peasantry, and their defeat was perceived as a fair punishment to the nobles, who allegedly prevented the abolition of bondage. Hopes for the liberation of the peasants while pinned on the good king, father. The rejection of the masses, a significant part of the nobility of the Decembrist movement, helped the struggle of tsarism with liberal and revolutionary trends, to carry out reactionary policies.

The Decembrists had a certain chance to accelerate the development of the country along the path of creating a Western-style statehood. The defeat of the Decembrists and the exclusion from the active political life of the best, most honest, most devoted people of Russia was a national tragedy.

The uprising of the Decembrists was part of the international revolutionary process that swept Europe in the 1920s. XIX century. Speaking against tsarism, which became the gendarme of Europe, the Decembrists thereby struck at the principles of the Holy Alliance in this the international importance of the Decembrist movement.