2. ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEM

Plan

The concept and criteria for determining the organization

Organization as a system

Types of organizational structures and their psychological characteristics

Socio-psychological processes in the organization

Group as a collective subject

Interaction between organization and group

Group processes

Social environment of the organization

Psychological climate

Conflicts in the organization

Comprehensive goal

Know :

• basic concepts and categories of organizational psychology;

• competences and the main activities of the psychologist in the organization.

Be able to :

• identify problems of a psychological nature when analyzing specific organizational situations, propose solutions to the organizational structure and goals of the organization;

• analyze the external and internal environment of the organization as a source of organizational and psychological problems;

• identify the specifics of the mental functioning of a person in an organization.

Own :

• conceptual apparatus in the field of organizational psychology;

• modern methods of collecting, processing, analyzing, interpreting organizational and psychological information, due to the specificity of the organizational structure;

• technologies for analyzing social and psychological processes in an organization, methods of managing group and teamwork.

The concept and criteria for determining the organization

The platform for the work of an organizational psychologist is an organization. In order to understand what questions psychologists decide on this site, it is necessary to answer the question of what an organization is. Responding to it, despite the fact that we often use this term in our speech, is not easy. Sociologists, psychologists, specialists in the field of organization and management define this category differently.

The scientific study of organizations begins in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The first attempt to give a scientific explanation of the essence of the organization was based on the idea of ​​expediency. The organization was treated as an expedient device of parts of a whole, an expedient connection between parts as a whole, having a definite purpose. The organization was defined as a social tool for achieving goals.

Already at the beginning of the XX century. A. Bogdanov understood the organization as such a whole, which is not reduced to a simple arithmetic sum of its constituent elements, as a whole that is more or less than the sum of its parts. He was the first to formulate the idea of ​​organization as a certain unity of human activities and resistances. C. Barnard proposed his own wording, which is still shared by many experts. He defined the organization as a system of consciously coordinated activities or forces of two or more people. In other words, according to C. Barnard, when people get together and officially decide to combine their efforts to achieve a common goal, they create an organization.

Today, the concept of "organization" is used in three main ways.

1. An organization is a social community that unites a number of individuals to achieve a common goal, which operate on the basis of certain procedures and rules (factory, store, school as an organization).

2. Organization is a type of human activity whose goal is to achieve orderliness, consistency of parts of the whole (for example, a professional in the field of organizing work with young people).

Organization as a process means that an organization is a complex of managerial actions aimed at forming the elements of an organization, at combining elements and at improving these connections. What are these elements: resources (material, labor, financial).

3. An organization is a degree of internal ordering, coordination, and coherence of parts of a whole (for example, organization of a business process).

The object of organizational psychology is an organization understood as a social community. The importance of awareness by managers, psychologists, and economists of how modern organizations are structured, according to which laws they develop and function, and which principles underlie the construction of organizations that have led to the beginning of the 20th century. The area of ​​knowledge that has received the name "Organization Theory" has been distinguished. She studies the methods of creating an organization, identifies the conditions necessary for its development, factors influencing the process of creating an organization, studies the laws of the functioning of an organization.

We define the most important characteristics of the organization.

1. Association and coordination of people’s activities. An organization is a social community that is in purposeful interaction with the external environment. Consideration of the organization as a social community allows not only to understand the essence and nature of this social education, but also emphasizes the fact that the interaction of people within it is the main characteristic. People unite in organizations their resources, physical and intellectual forces, while receiving the results of the unification and coordination of knowledge and labor of a huge number of people. That is what allows them to achieve outstanding results that are not achievable for singles, even the most talented and gifted.

2. The overall goal, or task. Having a common goal is a prerequisite for combining the efforts of people and their resources in organizations. It, this common goal, is formed on the basis of the common needs and interests of the people creating the organization and working in it. An organization is a targeted social community. It is created to achieve goals that define the main directions of its activities, its structure, etc.

3. Organizational structure. In accordance with the goals of the organization, people consciously design its structure, defining the nature and methods of combining individual elements into a certain integrity. Depending on the objectives of the organization, its "age", technology, state and dynamics of the external environment, the organizational structure takes on various forms. It can be hierarchical, matrix, entrepreneurial, mixed.

4. Specialization and division of labor. The fragmentation of complex production processes, operations and tasks into components involving the specialization of human labor helps to use organizational resources with greater efficiency. The effectiveness of the division of labor in the organization was noticed in the XVIII century. A. Smith.

5. Organizational power. The implementation of a common task by the efforts of even a small group of people requires the transfer of power to one of its members, who would have the responsibility to ensure that the goals set are implemented effectively and efficiently. Organizational power is the right of the head to direct the activities of his subordinates. Without strong and effective organizational power, successful coordination of the activities of various people is impossible.

6. Organizational culture. Each organization has a specific system of traditions, beliefs, values, symbols, rituals, myths, norms of communication between people, etc. This is what is commonly called organizational culture. She gives her personality, her “face” and acts as a spiritual integrator of people working together in a certain social community. It also helps streamline their activities.

7. Organizational boundaries. These are various kinds of material and non-material "limiters", fixing the isolation of the organization relative to other objects, its external environment. Such a border can be an ordinary fence around an organization or a system of procedures and rules enshrined in various regulatory documents: a charter, a program, internal regulations, official instructions, etc.

The modern view of the organization is associated with understanding it as an open system. This approach is based on the basic ideas of the general theory of systems. The term "system" is derived from the Greek word systema, which means an organized, orderly relationship between components. In the most general sense, a system is a collection of internally interconnected parts. Moreover, the whole is not reducible to the simple arithmetic sum of its constituent elements. An organizational system is a certain set of interrelated parts of an organization that forms a certain integrity.

For understanding and designing intra-organizational processes, it is of great importance to analyze the environment in which an organization exists, to which it adapts and which it can change. Organization analysis can be carried out on the basis of various approaches or paradigms. In one case, organizations are understood as systems that quickly, flexibly, adequately respond to any changes in the conditions of activity and the rules of the game. In another case, the organization freely chooses and constructs goals, ways of activity, its forms, its future, etc. with the help of their owners and managers.

The objectives of an organization, often referred to as corporate objectives, differ from the strategic setting in that they are much more specific in content and are often given in terms of value. These may include desired levels of revenue or profits, growth rates, dividend amounts, or an estimated value of shares. However, there may also be non-financial parameters, such as staff welfare. The objectives of the organization have traditionally been considered as a formal expression of the expectations of shareholders. However, they can also represent the expectations of other stakeholders in the organization (for example, employees, customers, suppliers, etc.). The tasks of an organization are usually formulated by senior board members or by the chairman or executive director.

Knowledge of the theory of organization is necessary for the manager, as it will give him a systemic idea of ​​the object of management. That is, if management theory answers the question “How to manage?”, Then organization theory answers the question “What to manage?”.

The organization as an object of management is of particular importance, since the organization is the main link in the socio-economic system of the country (it is in the organization that various types of products and services are created). The state of an organization (the quality of its functioning) determines the state of its industries and the entire state. That is, if there is no organization as an object, then there is no branch as an object and a territory as an object. It is in organizations that the process of manufacturing a product or service is carried out, and the organization as an instrument solves both the economic and social tasks of society.

The importance of the theory of organization as a field of knowledge increases, because the complexity of economic activity increases, the number of enterprises increases, their ties expand, competition increases, and the requirements for stakeholders on the organization increase.

In every country there are a huge number of different types of organizations. All this diversity forms a system in which there are groups of homogeneous but some basis of organizations (clusters), for the convenience of studying the features of each type of organization, the following groups are distinguished.

1. According to the content of the objectives, the nature of the target orientation - social and economic organizations. The main purpose of the functioning of economic organizations is called obtaining maximum profit. Business organizations are distinguished by the fact that they produce the bulk of products and services. The goals of social organizations are the satisfaction of social needs. In social organizations, profits can also be created, but this goal is not the main one.

2. According to the form of ownership - state, municipal, private, mixed. State, municipal, private form of ownership is used for the organization of economic and social organizations, and mixed - for economic.

State ownership - a feature of social organization is manifested in the fact that the composition of social organization is very high proportion of subjects of state and municipal enterprises. Example: health care or education is implemented mainly in public institutions, although there are also private clinics or schools.

In the subgroup of private organizations there are different types, subspecies, varieties, mainly on an organizational basis, ie:

- on the mechanism of creation of these enterprises;

- team building;

- the way of creating the manual;

- the nature of the participation of the team in the management of the organization.

As part of this subgroup, the main type of business organizations (typical for all countries) is joint-stock companies, because this form allows you to concentrate and accumulate significant financial resources in a short period of time through the repurchase of shares and in the subsequent period of functioning of organizations is a very flexible and stable form of organization .

Features of joint stock companies:

- authorized capital is formed by issuing shares;

- The supreme management body is the general meeting of shareholders. In addition, an executive management body is being created, i.e. The body that directly forms the governing body (continuously) is the board of directors.

State and municipal organizations are also present in any country. However, their share may be different.

Despite the differences that exist in organizations, any modern organization is an open sociotechnical system. And it is this feature that determines the mission, policies, requirements for managers and staff.

Organization as a system

The modern view of the organization is associated with understanding it as an open system. This approach is based on the basic ideas of the general theory of systems.

What is the system? In the most general sense, a system is a collection of internally interconnected parts. Moreover, the whole is not reducible to the simple sum of its constituent elements. An organizational system is a certain set of interrelated parts of an organization that forms a certain integrity. An organizational system is the ordered integrity of parts, components, subsystems connected in accordance with a specific plan for achieving pre-set goals.

The internal environment of the organization is a set of elements, including technology, goals and objectives, structure, personnel, owners, etc. The difficulty of ensuring the coordinated functioning of all elements of the organization lies in the fact that the “interests” of individual subsystems of the organization may contradict each other (continuous cycle technology requires a person’s permanent presence in an organization, but biologically a person has a cyclical structure and the best time to sleep is night).

Of great importance in the management process is an organizational technology that:

- is of a systemic nature, so for many organizations it makes sense to spell out clearly “technological functions”, “technological structure”, etc .;

- determined by the set of final products obtained at the output;

- often determines the individuality of the organization, its face, the difference from other organizations;

- is not limited only to technical components, but includes the knowledge and skills of employees, their level of qualification, attitude to work. This makes technology socially dependent: in a poorly developed social environment, thin technologies do not survive.

The dependence of organizations on technology is understood as a kind of "technological imperative," the dictates of technology. At the initial stages of the development of the theory of organizations and organizational design, he really made itself felt. However, gradually became the predominant sociotechnical approach, allowing to implement a systematic look at the organization and find the place of the technological system among other systems of the organization (financial and budgetary, social, informational, etc.).

Any structure operating in an organization performs a technological function. With this approach, you can specifically highlight the so-called "technological core" of the organization.

The goal of the “technology core” is to adapt an organization to changes in the environment, balancing its pressure, which creates uncertainty. The organization must carefully preserve and protect its core from external encroachments. It is the technological core that allows you to preserve the identity of the organization.

Technologies are differentiated by how the process is structured and how it leads to the final result. Among them are:

- multi-tier technology, which consists of chains of operations connected to the final product through serial communication;

- intensive technology, which represents a multitude of unrelated operations leading to the final result;

- Mediation technology, consisting of intermediary operations that lead to the final result in a pair with the main operation associated with it through feedback.

Выделение "технологического ядра" организации позволяет считать, что на периферии могут существовать самые разные по своей природе технологии (социальные, психологические, финансовые и т.д.). Они исполняют роль "защитного пояса", охраняющего до поры до времени "ядро" от воздействий внешней среды. Именно "охранные", "маргинальные" технологии берут на себя роль демпфера при изменениях среды. В конце концов, наступает момент, когда защитный пояс становится неэффективным, и организация либо ликвидируется, либо растворяется в другой, либо, осуществляя инновации, перестраивает свое "технологическое ядро".

Таким образом, в общем виде технологическая структура организации представляет собой множество элементов (субъектов и предметов их деятельности) и отношения между ними.

Главная функция такой структуры – обеспечение технологического процесса в производстве продуктов, услуг и т.п.

Обеспечение технологического процесса включает в себя прямое управление и коммуникативно-информационную поддержку производства, причем средства могут быть как формальные, так и неформальные. Отсюда следует, что организации могут иметь четыре типа технологических структур:

– формальные властные;

– неформальные властные;

– формальные коммуникативные;

– неформальные коммуникативные.

Их размеры, конфигурации, элементный состав очень многообразны и определены в конкретном процессе исследования или проектирования организации.

Для понимания и проектирования внутриорганизационных процессов большое значение имеет анализ среды, в которой организация существует и к которой она адаптируется. Этот анализ может осуществляться на основе различных подходов или парадигм. Одни из них тяготеют к классическим представлениям об организациях, их функционировании и развитии, другие – к неклассическим и даже постнеклассическим представлениям.

В первом случае организации понимаются как системы, которые быстро, гибко, адекватно реагируют на любые изменения условий деятельности и правил игры.

Во втором случае организация свободно выбирает и конструирует цели, способы деятельности, ее формы, будущее с помощью своих многоопытных менеджеров.

В третьем случае организации интерпретируются как квазиприродные образования со сложной структурой, включающей в себя различные виды деятельности и их носителей, достаточно инерционные, сохраняющие свою целостность и идентичность, несмотря на изменения внешней среды. Целостность, системность, идентичность ограничивают гибкость организации, подчиняют ее адаптационные процессы определенным законам.

Интерпретация организации как квазиприродного образования позволяет утверждать, что "среда", в которой действуют организации, тоже является квазиприродной. Каких-либо экологических ниш и никем "незанятых" природных ресурсов в настоящее время нет. Все занято, "схвачено" организациями.

Внешняя среда любой организации – это другие организации. Здесь наблюдаются отношения сотрудничества, взаимодеятельности, взаимозависимости, но в то же время – конкуренции и соревнования, соперничества.

Стабильные среды вызывают к жизни бюрократические организации. Сложная, быстро меняющаяся среда порождает организации с высокой степенью вовлеченности и участия всего персонала (адхократические, проектные и т.п.).

Внешняя среда предстает перед отдельными подразделениями организации в своем специфическом виде и требует соответствующих форм реагирования и адаптации. Это заставляет менеджеров творчески подходить к вопросу о границах организации, ее открытости и целостности.

Среда, в которой существует и к которой адаптируется организация, может быть разделена на общую и специфическую. Общая среда, влияющая на организацию опосредованно, – это социальное сообщество, понятое прежде всего как носитель определенных образцов деятельности и организационного поведения. В нем могут быть выделены такие области, как культурная, национальная, политическая, демографическая, ментальная и т.п. Они должны быть учтены при проектировании организаций.

Виды организационных структур и их психологическая характеристика

Организационная структура – один из базовых элементов организации, который определяется как совокупность способов, посредством которых процесс труда сначала разделяется на отдельные рабочие задачи, а затем достигается координация действий по решению задач. По сути дела, организационная структура определяет распределение ответственности и полномочий внутри организации. Как правило, она отображается в виде органиграммы – графической схемы, элементами которой являются иерархически упорядоченные организационные единицы (подразделения, должностные позиции). Именно структура организации во многом определяет характер отношений между людьми, включенными в организацию, объясняет, почему одни организации быстро и эффективно реагируют на изменение внешней среды, а другие делают это долго и непродуктивно.

Linear management structure is the interaction of the head and subordinates (Fig. 2.1). It is used mainly in the lower levels of control.

Fig. 2.1. Linear organization structure

Note: P - division employees

The advantage of this management structure is to ensure a quick response of employees to management teams.

The disadvantage is that the manager must have all the knowledge necessary for the implementation of the management process.

The linear-staff management structure (Fig. 2.2) differs from the linear one in the presence of functional headquarters in it, designed to competently develop management problems and issue recommendations to the directors.

Fig. 2.2. Line headquarters structure

Note: P - department employees

лю. К штабам относятся плановые, диспетчерские, экономические и другие службы.

Достоинством является обеспечение компетентной консультации руководителя.

Недостаток заключается в том, что взаимодействие различных функциональных штабов и согласование их деятельности осуществляется только на уровне руководителя, а также происходит запаздывание в выработке команд управления.

Функциональная структура управления (рис. 2.3) предполагает существование функциональных руководителей, которые, обладая компетенцией в решении определенного рода вопросов, наделены правом выдавать команды нижестоящим работникам, равнозначные командам линейного руководителя.

Достоинством функциональной структуры управления является обеспечение быстрой выдачи компетентных команд.

Недостаток заключается в том, что имеется возможность получения работниками разноречивых команд, исходящих от функциональных руководителей, с неизбежной необходимостью согласования их, в том числе на уровне руководителя организации с такой структурой управления. Такая структура управления на практике нигде не используется.

Линейно-функциональная структура управления (рис. 2.4) является синтезом линейной и функциональной

Рис. 2.3. Функциональная структура

Рис. 2.4. Линейно-функциональная структура

структур управления, основывающимся на функциональном разделении полномочий руководителей и линейном подчинении определенных специалистов (работников) соответствующим функциональным руководителям.

Достоинство этой структуры заключается в том, что обеспечивается однозначное и оперативное руководство по каждому виду работ.

Недостатком является повышение степени обособленности работников различных функциональных подразделений и служб, вынесение всех вопросов их взаимодействия па уровень руководителя организации.

Матричная структура управления (МСУ) – структура, сочетающая вертикальные линейные и функциональные связи управления с горизонтальными (рис. 2.5).

При МСУ персонал функциональных подразделений, оставаясь в их составе и подчинении, обязан также выполнять указания руководителей проектов или специальных штабов, советов и т.п., которые образуются для руководства отдельными проектами и работами.

Руководители проектов устанавливают состав и очередность работ, а руководители функциональных подразделений несут ответственность за их надлежащее и своевременное исполнение.

Руководители проектов наделяются полномочиями различного диапазона – от самых широких до ограничивающихся выполнением штабных функций.

МСУ могут применяться в отдельных организациях и органах управления и для систем организаций и органов.

МСУ сохраняет преимущества как линейно-функциональной, так и проектной структур управления. Она нацелена на взаимную согласованность работы всех подразделений организации для достижения целей различных проектов. Это упрощает координацию выполнения работ над проектами.

МСУ создает предпосылки для наиболее квалифицированного исполнения отдельных функций. Структура обладает значительной гибкостью, поскольку упрощается перераспределение персонала для выполнения первоочередных работ.

Основным недостатком МСУ является то, что при реализации создаются отношения двойного подчинения исполнителей. В результате усложняется механизм управления и возникает опасность появления противоречивых ситуаций. При МСУ спорадически может обнаруживаться дефицит (или недогрузка) функциональных специалистов, что вызывает стремление к увеличению штатов функциональных подразделений.

Проектная структура управления (ПСУ) – структура, нацеленная на обеспечение эффективного управления параллельным выполнением на предприятии или в организации ряда крупных проектов или работ (рис. 2.6).

При реализации ПСУ получают автономию определенные совокупности подразделений, участвующих в отдельных проектах, во главе с руководителями этих проектов.

Рис. 2.5. Матричная структура

Рис. 2.6. Проектная структура

Руководитель проекта несет всю ответственность за его своевременную и качественную разработку и осуществление. Он наделяется всеми правами распорядительства, подначальными ему подразделениями и не имеет в подчинении подразделений, непосредственно не связанных с подготовкой проекта.

ПСУ четко ориентирована на исполнение определенных задач. Коллектив работающих над одним проектом объединяется единством поставленной цели. При реализации ПСУ сводится на нет возможность принятия по проекту противоречивых решений и выдачи несогласованных заданий, создаются предпосылки для оперативного разрешения в пределах проекта возникающих проблем и вопросов.

The CSP provides an increase in the personal responsibility of managers and executives, and the formation of conditions for their better interaction. The level of requirements for the project manager as a specialist and manager is exceptionally high.

CSPs can be created in decentralized and centralized forms. Their difference lies in the place and subordination of functional and auxiliary units in the management structure of the enterprise or organization.

In a decentralized CSP, they are divided into project units and are subordinate to project managers. With a centralized CSP, they serve as common to all design departments and are subordinate to the head of the enterprise or organization. This determines their strengths and weaknesses.

Основным достоинством децентрализованной ПСУ является то, что в совокупность подразделений, разрабатывающих определенный проект, включается весь комплекс функциональных и исполнительных подразделений, требуемых для его выполнения. Все полномочия и права распорядительства интеллектуальными, материальными и трудовыми ресурсами по проекту сосредотачиваются в одном лице – руководителя проекта. Такая структура позволяет реализовать преимущества единства организации деятельности и единоначалия в управлении.

"Product" management structure (ProdSU) - modification of the hierarchical scheme of the management structure (Fig. 2.7). Its peculiarity lies in the fact that at the production and service level of the structure of the organization there is a separation of functions for the product being produced. This allows you to conduct separate accounting, sales, supply and other operations.

Advantages of ProdSU:

- efficiency of decisions to ensure the quality of the product;

- attraction to the leadership of more competent specialists in a particular field;

Fig. 2.7. "Product" structure

- creation of a cohesive management and production team;

- efficiency in solving non-standard situations;

- increasing the personal responsibility of all employees.

Disadvantages ProdSU:

- the risk of a decline in sales;

- the difficulty of coordinating the activities of all departments.

Особенности организационной структуры – фактор, который определяет, какая организационная культура позволит организации достигать результатов, какие критерии будут положены в основу измерения эффективности, какие полномочия существуют у руководителя для воздействия на сотрудников, какие отношения связывают сотрудников между собой. Таким образом, именно организационная структура (элемент, формируемый в самом начале жизненного цикла организации) "диктует" людям, включенным в организацию модели поведения, взаимодействие, принятие совместного решения, разрешение конфликтов. В жизни любой организации может наступить момент, когда организационная структура "устаревает" и является барьером на пути организационного развития. В такой ситуации приходит время самым серьезным организационным нововведениям – изменение структуры.

Socio-psychological processes in the organization

Organization in the socio-psychological aspect can be defined as an association of people, aimed at achieving socio-economic goals and satisfaction of motives, needs, interests through joint work and having a legal status determined by the laws of society.

The criterion that distinguishes social organization from all other types of social groups is a certain structure of relations and a system of interconnected interests that motivate work. An organization is an association of people jointly implementing a program or goal and acting on the basis of certain rules and procedures.

Socio-psychological processes in an organization depend on its type:

- actually "economic organizations", regulated by material interest;

- non-economic organizations performing economic functions ("economically active"), for example, the state and the church;

- economic organizations governed by non-economic means (“economically regulatory”), such as land communities, professional workshops and guilds;

- organizations "approving the formal order", exercising non-economic control over the conditions of economic activity, for example, law enforcement agencies.

Features of the socio-psychological processes in the organization also depend on the historical forms of economic organizations.

A community is built on close internal connections, often combined according to territorial or blood and related signs. It is characterized by:

- formal equality;

- common property;

- the indivisibility of many internal functions;

- universal subordination to the informal traditional order.

A corporation is a relatively closed organization, built on less close but more professional connections. It has a narrower functional focus, a pronounced multistage hierarchy, a rigid division of internal responsibilities, a more formal administrative procedure.

An association is a relatively free association of individuals and groups that preserve their personal rights and private property. It is created for special tasks and its activity, as a rule, does not go beyond them, does not encroach on the individual’s freedom and privacy. These are societies of consumers, and from a sociological point of view they are joint-stock companies whose members can buy and sell their rights to participate in a business on the open stock market.

These forms of organizations have different monopoly aspirations, values, norms, degree of closeness, hierarchical structures, degree of subordination of the interests of groups and individuals to group goals, the connection of remuneration with belonging to an organization.

Features of the socio-psychological processes in the organization are revealed through many variables. This is a favorable social and psychological climate in the group, a psychological atmosphere in the structural unit in comparison with the expected (ideal) atmosphere for employees. No less important is the prevailing orientation of group members on a common cause or on interaction with colleagues, the level of group cohesion of social communities of individual structural divisions of the organization. Among the socio-psychological processes can distinguish features of interpersonal relationships, style of interpersonal interaction and behavior in conflict situations, the state of the relationship management of structural units with their subordinates, the degree of conflict and the depth of the existing conflict in the group.

An important variable is the quality and efficiency of managerial activity of the managerial level, the management style of the team of a particular manager, in particular, the ratio of prescriptive, collegial and liberal methods, as well as the role-oriented orientation of the activity of a particular leader (the prevalence of solving current problems, tasks of the near future or the ability for strategic thinking) the prevailing orientation and the ratio of the level of orientation towards the fulfillment of the tasks set and the solution of the social psyche problems in the subordinate group.

The sociometric statuses of members of a particular department, the relevance of their authority on the basis of sympathy / antipathy from the point of view of joint activities, solving official and personal problems, as well as leisure activities, the socio-psychological status of private and managerial personnel, the presence of in the subdivision of informal leaders and outsiders, the possible existence of informal groups. Employee satisfaction with the content and results of professional activity, working conditions, level and quality of professional training, the overall level of employee loyalty to the organization as a whole and to its immediate managers, the main demotivating factors that arise in the process of accomplishing the tasks set, assessment of managerial qualities of a manager also have a significant impact on the functioning of the organization as a socio-psychological community.

The functioning of the organization or its structural divisions is influenced by declarative as well as true goals and motives of the activity, the employee's motivational profile, the level of adaptation (disadaptation) of new employees, the level of employee's “professional burnout” and many other variables.

Group as a collective subject

One of the theoretical advantages of the concept of "subject" is its integral character and the possibility of using it in psychology to designate the characteristics of both an individual ("individual subject") and a group ("group, collective subject"). That is, the concept of "subject" allows you to identify the general psychological characteristics of the individual, a small and large group and society as a whole.

In modern social psychology, the concept of "collective subject" is used in several meanings (or senses).

First, the “collective subject” and the “collective as subject” are used in the same sense, and thus the first becomes only the epistemological sense of the collective. Therefore, when referring to ontological meaning, the concepts of "collective", "group" are used. And when the epistemological significance, then - "collective (group) subject", or "collective (group) as a subject." These concepts are considered as an alternative to "the collective (group) as an object." In the most vivid form, such an understanding of a collective subject is found in the social psychology of management, which uses the concepts of “collective as a subject and object of control (influence)”, i.e. in the context of epistemological opposition of subject and object.

Secondly, the “collective subject” is understood as an alternative (in the sense of opposition) to the “individual subject” or “subject” in general, which is a priori understood as the “individual subject”. Such consideration of a collective subject is characteristic of the socio-psychological research of joint activities (especially joint work activities), as well as for research in the field of work psychology, analyzing joint work.

Thirdly, the content of the "collective subject" is a certain quality of the collective (group), the quality of being a subject that characterizes the collectives in varying degrees. In recent years, this quality has sometimes been denoted by "subject", although it has not yet gained distribution. Consequently, different groups are collective subjects in varying degrees. To the fullest extent, a collective subject means to be active, acting, integrated, i.e. acting as a whole, responsible, etc.

Fourth, the broad interpretation of the “collective subject” in social psychology can be represented as follows. A collective subject is any group of people acting together or behaving. Any aggregate of people, manifesting itself through any forms of behavior, relationships, activities, communication, interaction, etc., is a collective subject. Therefore, groups can be real or potential subjects. Moreover, the “group” and “collective” subjects most often do not differentiate. “Collectivity” in the modern language of social psychology should be understood as “consistency”, no more than that, which is extremely important. Collectiveness (compatibility) cannot be confused with collectivism as the psychological quality of a collective or individual in a collective.

Despite the described ambiguity of interpretations of a collective subject, his understanding remains clearly incomplete, if one does not single out those basic properties of the group that make him a collective subject. There are three most important properties of the group that are necessary and, in fact, criterion in describing a collective subject.

1. Interconnectedness and interdependence of individuals in a group contribute to the formation of a group state as a state of pre-activity — the most important prerequisite of any activity.

2. The ability of the group to show joint forms of activity, i.e. to act, to be a single entity in relation to other social objects or in relation to itself. The joint forms of activity usually include the following:

- communication within the group and with other groups;

- group actions;

- Team work;

- group relationship;

- group behavior;

- intergroup interaction, etc.

3. The quality (ability) of the group to self-reflection, as a result of which feelings of "We" are formed (primarily as an experience of their belonging to a group and unity with their group) and an image of We (as a group view of their group).

For specific groups, these characteristics are not just characteristic to varying degrees, but some of them may be leading, dominant, while others will be less pronounced. This allows us to distinguish qualitatively different states of the subjectivity of the group:

- subjectivity as an interconnectedness and interdependence of an aggregate of individuals may be indicated by potential subjectivity or pre-subjectness (it is crucial that a particular group may not yet manifest joint forms of activity, but already be psychologically ready for this and in this sense be a collective subject in the most elementary, potential his quality);

- subjectivity as a joint activity is designated by the subject itself, or real (as opposed to potential) subjectivity, thereby again emphasizing the main meaning of subjectivity in the group's ability to manifest joint forms of activity;

- Subjectivity as a group self-reflectivity in relation to natural groups can be considered the most complex state of subjectivity, which does not always characterize one or another specific group.

The three main psychological states of a collective subject can most likely be viewed as different levels of subjectivity: from elementary forms of interconnectedness to the most complex forms of group self-reflection — such level-level development is characteristic of a collective subject.

Perhaps the existence of groups that do not have the quality of subjectivity or the properties of a collective subject:

- spontaneous groups, which are formed in accordance with the specific situation, and then easily disintegrate or change, for example, the so-called transport, street and other similar groups;

- territorial groups formed at the place of residence, although they may become real subjects, but their typical states, as a rule, are not subjectively characterized;

- any briefly existing group, which can be either spontaneous or specially, but temporarily (situationally) organized;

- many natural and organized groups that are not at the earliest stages (stages) of their formation and formation, only nominally, but not really corresponding to the criterion of interconnectedness and interdependence, etc.

Consequently, such social groups that are discovered only by spatial and temporal features do not really possess the qualities of a collective subject. However, such an interpretation is possible only when the first of the above-mentioned signs of a collective subject is considered sufficient for assigning one group or another to it. If the second sign (joint activity) is meant as necessary, along with the first, then the aggregate of the group, which does not possess the quality of subjectivity, will increase dramatically.

The phenomenon of a collective subject manifests itself through various forms of group joint activity (or joint activity), which, unfortunately, are not systematized in social psychology due to the difficulties associated with their multiplicity and a high degree of heterogeneity. Among the most well-known forms of joint activity are the following:

- joint activities in all its variety: labor, study, play, etc .;

- intra-group interaction in any of its forms, including the establishment of communications, communication, etc .;

- group behavior (joint actions, expression of group opinions, assessments, attitudes towards social and other objects, etc.);

- group self-knowledge (self-reflection) with the aim of, for example, establishing group norms, rules of behavior, their self-correction, etc .;

- intergroup interaction on a wide range of issues related to the activity of their own and others' groups.

Studies of the collective subject are carried out in close connection with the study of joint activities, therefore, the selected properties (characteristics) of the collective subject are simultaneously the properties of the joint activity. In accordance with