3.4. Educational systems in the history of pedagogy and at the present stage

Over the long history of the existence of pedagogy as a science and practice, many educational systems have arisen, based on various philosophical, sociological, and psychological-pedagogical concepts. We characterize some of them.

The most ancient educational systems described in a number of sources and which have come down to our day as separate ideas and directions were created in the Greek city-states of Sparta and Athens and reflected the specifics of their economic and political structure.

The Spartan education system was primarily aimed at preparing a warrior, strong in body and spirit. Education of such a warrior took over the state and carried out in three stages. At the first stage (7-15 years old), children acquired reading and writing skills and joined physical hardening (they walked barefoot, slept on thin straw bedding, underwent cruel physical tests), learned to asceticism, laconicism, strict control and discipline. At the second stage (15–20 years old), in addition to reading and writing, young people mastered singing and music, learned to endure hunger and physical pain, and independently produce food; took part in slaughter slaves and physical punishments of guilty comrades, acquired the skills of self-control and self-discipline. At the third stage (20–30 years), they gradually acquired the status of a full member of the military community, which was required to perfectly hold a spear, sword, dart and other weapons, to be unconditionally committed to the interests of the state and ready to fulfill military duty and self-sacrifice at any moment.

The traditions of the Spartan education became the subject of imitation in subsequent epochs, especially in the systems of closed military educational institutions.

The Athenian system of education set as its goal the education of a comprehensively and harmoniously developed personality, indicators of which were victories in competitions in gymnastics, dance, music, and verbal disputes. The system of education was also implemented in stages. At the first stage (7-16 years old), the children attended both the Musical (music) and gymnastic schools (Palestr), where they received literary, musical, and military-sports education. At the second stage (16–18 years old), young men improved their education and upbringing in gymnasiums, where they gained experience in eloquence and arguing. At the final stage (18–20 years old), the best young men improved their military skills in ephebes.

The Athenian education system was focused on mastering the "totality of virtues", which later became known as the "seven free arts" (grammar, dialectics, the art of the dispute, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music). This program went down in history as a symbol of Greek education.

In Europe, VI – XV centuries. Religious traditions (Orthodox, Muslim, Buddhist, Judaic) had a great influence on the formation of educational systems, according to which the task of education was to achieve harmony between the earth and heavenly existence. The substantive basis of such upbringing was religiously established moral norms, reflecting the eternal ideas of mankind about good and evil.

In parallel with this, in the Middle Ages there was a system of knightly education, which included sacrifice, religious obedience combined with personal freedom, service to the Beautiful Lady, and observance of the code of honor. The basis of the content of knightly education was the program of the “seven knightly virtues”: possession of a spear, fencing, riding, swimming, hunting, playing chess, singing and playing a musical instrument.

The system of knightly education consisted of four stages. Up to 7 years, the boy received home education. From 7 to 14 years old, he served as a page of his wife and acquired a circle of knowledge, skills and experience of court life. From 14 to 21, the young man became a squire with knights, mastering the "beginnings of love, war and religion." At the age of 21 he was knighted, the basis for which were the tests for physical, military and moral maturity, demonstrated in tournaments, duels and feasts.

One of the first author’s educational systems was the gentleman ’s education system proposed by the English philosopher and teacher John Locke (1632–1704), which formed the basis of the western educational and educational tradition of the XVIII – XX centuries. In the treatise “Some Thoughts on Education” (1693), he substantiated the thesis about the crucial role of education in the formation of personality and the importance of the environment in the process of education, since “a person’s soul is a blank plaque without any signs and ideas that should be filled with education”. The ideal of education, according to Locke, is a highly educated and business person. The main components in his education are: 1) physical education, character development, will development; 2) moral education and training in good manners; 3) labor education based on knowledge of economics and agriculture, possession of handicrafts; 4) the development of curiosity and interest in the teaching, which should have a theoretical orientation and practical character.

The educational system of the German philosopher and teacher Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925), known as Waldorf pedagogy (after the name of the Waldorf-Astoria factory in which the school was organized), is based on the theory of free education. It can be characterized as a system of self-knowledge and self-development of the personality, which are carried out in partnership with the teacher, in harmony of soul and body.

The educational system of the Waldorf schools was designed to simultaneously develop the intellect (spirit), body and morality (soul) of a person. The main principle underlying this educational system is the principle of freedom, which in this case necessarily provides for responsibility. The school is a social organism of a new type. First of all, there is no director in it. Parents are involved in all important issues. The school has no common methods, precise curricula, textbooks. Teachers are given complete freedom in choosing the content, forms and methods of the educational process.

The Waldorf school teachers were outstanding personalities, highly erudite, well-trained specialists, whose activities are characterized by: 1) choosing a bright, living word, rhythm, natural material, play, creative activity as the main means of teaching; 2) reliance on the individual characteristics of children, their spiritual experiences as an incentive for the development and awareness of their “I”; 3) focus on the development in children of the ability to feel, creatively create, study nature, perceive culture and art; 4) installation on training without marks, to show that the teacher together with the students is looking for answers to the questions posed, not always knowing the answers; 5) the desire to assist the student in the form of judgment-advice, which is expressed as a wish in the course of free communication.

The educational system of the Italian teacher Maria Montessori (1870–1952) was developed in line with the idea of ​​free education and early development in kindergarten and elementary school. The main task of the Montessori school was to create an environment conducive to the natural process of the child’s self-development.

The main conceptual provisions of the educational system of M. Montessori are the following: 1) training and education must take place quite naturally in accordance with the development of the personality, since the child develops himself; 2) the child's motto of the teacher should be the motto of the educational system (“Help me to do this”); 3) the whole life of a child - from birth to civil maturity - is the development of his independence and independence; 4) in the organization of education, consideration is needed of sensitivity and spontaneity of development, the unity of individual and social development; 5) there is nothing in the mind that previously would not exist in feelings; 6) the essence of the mind - in streamlining and matching; 7) it is not necessary to teach the child: it is necessary to provide him with the conditions for the independent development and mastering of human culture; 8) the child’s consciousness is “absorbent”, therefore the main thing in education is to organize the environment for such “absorption”.

One of the central in the educational system of M. Montessori is the idea of ​​educative (cultural, educational, pedagogical) environment, which is necessary in order to realize the natural forces of development embodied in the child. In the preschool period, the upbringing environment contains the so-called montessori material, selected in accordance with the child’s personality and movement, acting as a psychological tool of mediated perception of the world and necessary for the development of practical skills, fine motor skills and sensations, hands, eyes, speech of the child. A part of this material is created from everyday household objects, various in size, shape, color, smell, taste, weight, temperature. An adult as a constructive element of the educational environment is always ready to help in the desire of a child to know the world around him and himself.

At the early school age, “montessori-material” contains specially created bright, illustrative didactic means (numerical tables, numbers, letters and geometrical figures from rough paper, numerical material from beads, writing means, a library). An adult as an organizer of the educational environment conducts conversations, stories, conversations, games. The main thing in his position is to explore, observe, organize a parenting environment, respect the child’s right to be himself and be different from adults and other children.

The educational system of the outstanding French teacher and philosopher Selestin Freinet (1896–1966), a rural teacher from the town of Vence, was developed on the basis of the concept of free education. According to Freinet, the child must create his own personality, creatively develop himself, reveal his potential, self-actualize. The function of the teacher is to help the child discover and develop what is organically inherent in him. In this regard, Freinet paid special attention to the design of the environment in which the learning and self-development of the individual takes place. In a number of philosophical and pedagogical works, he described and introduced into actual practice the model of the “children's reserve”, where the goal of education is “the maximum development of the child’s personality in a reasonably organized society that will serve him and which he himself will serve”.

The conceptual provisions of S. Freinet’s educational system include the following principles: 1) education is a natural process, proceeds naturally, in accordance with the peculiarities of the age and abilities of the individual; 2) the priorities of the educational process are interpersonal relations and value orientations; 3) socially useful work is required at all stages of education and personal development; 4) a large role in the educational process belongs to the school government; 5) it is necessary to purposefully develop the emotional and intellectual activity of the individual; 6) the teacher does not educate anyone, does not develop, and participates in solving common problems on an equal footing with children; 7) there are no mistakes in the activities of children, but there are misunderstandings, having understood which, together with everyone, they can be avoided; 8) there is no disciplinary discipline, since it disciplines the very feeling of one’s own and collective security and joint movement.

The creation of an educational system in which the school, the natural and social environment interact in an optimal way, occupied a special place in the pedagogical theory and practice of the outstanding Russian teacher Stanislav Teofilovich Shatsky (1878–1934). His work began in 1905, when he created the first Russian clubs for children and teenagers. The next stage was the creation of the children's labor colony “Cheerful Life” (1915–1917), and then the First Experimental Station on Public Education (1919–1932). S. T. Shatsky believed that the developmental influence of the educational system will be the higher, the more actively children are involved in the study and transformation of the environment. By organizing various aspects of the individual’s life activity — work, physical, mental, play space — the school must be the initiator of sociocultural changes, “study life and participate in it in order to transform it”.

S. T. Shatsky was convinced that only work can bring “meaning and order to the life of children”, but it must be organized under the following conditions: 1) work should be interesting for children; 2) he must have personal and social significance for them; 3) work should be aimed at developing the strength and abilities of children; 4) he should develop business relationships and partnerships with children.

The educational system in pedagogical practice of S. T. Shatsky acted as an integral socio-pedagogical unity, which included nurseries and kindergartens, primary and secondary schools, a boarding school, a club, and a reading room. In addition, a substructure of research institutions and a system of professional development of teachers were created.

The educational system of the outstanding Soviet-era teacher Anton Semenovich Makarenko (1888–1939) was created in the 1920s, when a large-scale task was being solved in Russia - the search for effective ways to combat homelessness. To this end, A. S Makarenko in 1920 organized a labor colony named after AM Gorky near Poltava for the re-education of juvenile delinquents, and later - the Children's Labor Communion named after F. Dzerzhinsky. A special feature of the Makarenko educational system was the dialectical interrelation of goals and means of education, which was expressed in the following basic principles of activity: 1) humanism of educational influence, consisting in the formula: “As much as possible to the person and as much respect for him as possible”; 2) the collective nature of education, which is at the heart of the entire system of activity of the children's community; 3) the presence of a “system of promising lines”, i.e., near, medium and long-range goals, which make the life of children meaningful and filled with expectations of “tomorrow's joy”; 4) the presence of a parallel action, in which not only the teacher, but also the collective on the basis of public opinion, influences the personality; 5) the involvement of the children's team in an interesting, meaningful socially useful work that can bring joy and pride for the results achieved; 6) the organization of leisure activities on the basis of various circles of interest (choral circle, drama circle, sports and military, chess and drafts, dance, literary, political reading circle, light newspaper, fairy tale circle).

It should be noted that many aspects of the educational system of A. S. Makarenko are still widespread in the world educational practice.

In the middle of the 20th century, pedagogical theories of the West concluded that it was the “school environment” that determined the qualitative features of the educational process. On the basis of these theoretical positions in England, Australia and the United States began to create educational systems, called "effective school".

An effective school creates a living environment for students, which is distinguished by a warm, positive atmosphere of cooperation and unconditional mutual recognition, which ensures the true effectiveness of the educational process. The lead is the desire to provide support to every member of the group who needs it. The organizational structure of an effective school and the rules of conduct in it are established in such a way as to ensure as much individual freedom as possible within the limits voluntarily accepted by all members of this community. This contributes not only to good academic performance, but also to the formation of a positive self-esteem in each student. Since the 1960s. In the USA, another kind of school education system appeared, called “fair communities.” These are small (usually up to 100 people) voluntary associations of administration, students and teachers, having strong ties with parents, established inside a traditional traditional school. All community members have the right to vote in solving major problems. The school lives on its own code of conduct, built on the basis of the principles of justice and concern for each other. Management is carried out by democratically elected bodies. The basis of this educational system are the ideas of the American psychologist L. Kohlberg, who considers education as the advancement of the personality from the lower level to the higher levels of moral development. First of all, democratic relations between teachers and pupils, the systematic inclusion of children in the moral analysis of their own and other people's actions are necessary.

Жизнь сообщества включает разнообразную деятельность на пользу близким и далеким людям: это и расчистка игровых площадок, и сбор средств в пользу нуждающихся, и творческие конкурсы, и собрания в кругу. Собрания помогают не только организовывать деятельность сообщества, но и разрешать конфликтные ситуации, анализировать поступки каждого, оценивать дела «справедливого сообщества». Одной из форм воспитания является решение морально-нравственных дилемм, в результате чего и педагоги, и учащиеся приобретают прочные ценностные ориентиры, трансформируют узкоэгоистические интересы в правила и нормы группового поведения. При этом педагоги стараются не переступить черту, за которой находится прямое давление на ценностные установки учащихся. Общими характеристиками сообществ являются эмоционально комфортная обстановка в школе, чуткость и забота друг о друге, нравственная и интеллектуальная развитость детей, сотрудничество.

Наиболее разработанными воспитательными системами в ряде стран Запада и в США являются школы глобального образования. В основе данных воспитательных систем лежит концепция американского философа Р. Хенви, который рассматривает мир как единое целое, как огромную глобальную общину, существующую в виде системы взаимосвязей и взаимозависимостей, где благополучие каждого зависит от благополучия всех. В соответствии с этим цель школы глобального образования состоит в том, чтобы научить школьников: 1) видеть планету в целом и отдельные ее аспекты как взаимосвязанные во всех элементах сложные системы; 2) рассматривать свою национальную культуру как органическую и необходимую часть общемировой культуры, а в национальной культуре видеть и ценить элементы культуры общечеловеческой; 3) осознавать себя как суверенную личность, члена семьи и общества, действующего субъекта исторического процесса; 4) применять приобретенные в школе знания, способы деятельности, умения и навыки на практике, в конкретных делах по улучшению состояния социальной и природной среды.

Воспитательные системы, разрабатываемые в современной отечественной педагогической теории и практике, нацелены на реализацию требований личностно ориентированного образования, предусматривающего оптимальное развитие и саморазвитие педагогов и воспитанников в процессе их совместной творческой жизнедеятельности.

Воспитательная система школы № 825 г. Москвы (директор Владимир Абрамович Караковский), ориентированная на целостную педагогическую концепцию «Мы – школа», опирается на идеи системности, комплексного подхода к воспитанию, интеграции педагогических воздействий, приоритетности коллективного творчества. Ее основными особенностями выступают: 1) организационное строение, включающее педагогический совет (администрация, учителя, представители от старшеклассников) и большой совет (директор, педагоги, представители от каждого класса, начиная с шестого); 2) стиль взаимоотношений, основанный на заинтересованном обсуждении детских проблем, доброжелательном отношении к каждому ребенку, отсутствии грубости, резкого тона и серьезных конфликтов между педагогами и школьниками, личных дружеских связях между учителями и учениками; 3) ключевые общешкольные дела (термин В. А. Караковского), которые проводятся как традиционные мероприятия, вносят организационную упорядоченность в жизнь школы, но каждый раз разрабатываются, подготавливаются и проводятся на основе оригинального, нетрадиционного, творческого подхода; 4) коммунарский сбор как главный функциональный узел воспитательной системы, проводимый в весенние каникулы в течение трех дней, представляет собой комплекс коллективных творческих дел, осуществляемых в условиях высокой интенсивности, с обязательным выездом за город. Это мощное средство объединения коллектива и осознания чувства «мы».

The educational system of the school of self-determination (школа № 734 г. Москвы) Александра Наумовича Тубельского имеет следующие особенности: 1) в соответствии со сборником «Имею право», определяющим Устав школы, главной целью обучения и воспитания является «создание условий, которые содействуют ребенку в строительстве личности, осознании своей индивидуальности, образовании себя»; 2) задача учителя видится в том, чтобы сохранить у ребят любознательность и интерес к учебе; это достигается отсутствием жестких образовательных программ, преимущественной ориентацией на интересы, склонности и способности каждого ученика, самостоятельно и в индивидуальном темпе добывающего знания; 3) вся школа превращена в большую экспериментальную площадку, занятия по различным предметам строятся на основе самостоятельной исследовательской деятельности детей, которые сами выдвигают версии, ищут доказательства и сами определяют, каких знаний им не хватает для решения проблемы; 4) творческая деятельность является ведущей в организации учебно-воспитательного процесса, что проявляется в издании общешкольной газеты «Фиговый листок», во введении ряда обязательных дисциплин и спецкурсов, направленных на то, чтобы помочь ребенку выразить себя в письменной и устной речи; 5) весь процесс жизнедеятельности школы основывается на равноправии и педагогике сотрудничества, регулируется школьной конституцией, которая одинаково обязательна для всех граждан, которыми являются и ученики, и учителя.

Pupils of the school of A.N. Tubelsky have the right from the 5th grade to choose subjects for studying beyond the state minimum; study according to an individual plan, giving every student the opportunity to freely attend classes and take the program ahead of time; in agreement with the administration to replace the teacher or even abandon him.

Воспитательная система Красноярской школы «Универс» (директор Сергей Юрьевич Курганов) основана на поэтапном вхождении ученика в диалог культур на основе следующей динамики: 1-2-й классы – зарождение «узелков» понимания («точек удивления»), в качестве которых выступают идеи, слова, числа, явления природы, исторические моменты и которые построены по схеме народных загадок; 3-4-й классы – освоение античной культуры как целостное, неделимое единство, включающее античную историю, математику, искусство, мифологию, механику; 5-6-й классы – освоение культуры Средневековья по принципу, аналогичному предыдущей программе; упор на пафос веры и культа, характерные для культуры этой эпохи, но без пропаганды религии; 7-8-й классы – освоение культуры Нового времени как диалога с предшествующими и последующими эпохами на основе изучения первоисточников XVII–XIX вв.; 9-11-й классы – культура современности, изучаемая с трех основных позиций: 1) сведение воедино загадок и отгадок всех предыдущих курсов; 2) углубление во внутреннюю противоречивость современных общечеловеческих проблем; 3) организация диалога между классами, возрастами, культурами.

Воспитательная система агрошколы Александра Александровича Католикова (г. Сыктывкар, Республика Коми) основана на воплощении в условиях современной школы-интерната модели трудового воспитания по А. С. Макаренко.

В школе около 300 детей в возрасте от 2 до 18 лет. Материальная база школы включает жилой комплекс (учебные и спальные корпуса, медицинский блок, спортивный блок с плавательным бассейном, стрелковый тир), учебно-опытное хозяйство (30 га земли под цветы и овощи, 100 га земли под пашню, 100 га лугов, 70 га лесного хозяйства, ботанико-зоологический заказник), технический парк (гаражи, вело– и мотоклассы, 18 тракторов) и животноводческий комплекс (15 коров, 15 телят, 100 поросят, 50 овец, 4 лошади, птицеферму и кролиководческую ферму).

Важнейшими элементами воспитательной системы агрошколы являются разновозрастные бригады, соревнования, культ труда, позиция педагога и позиция ребенка.

Разновозрастные бригады работают на основе самоуправления: бригадир избирается на общем собрании, бригада имеет вымпел, девиз, эмблему, песню. В коллективе есть совет командиров, действует школа командиров.

Соревнование служит стимулом жизнедеятельности коллектива школы: каждая бригада имеет свой участок работы, для учета результатов соревнования разработана четкая система учета труда.

Культ труда является законом коллектива и выражается в том, что в нем трудятся все: от мала до велика, от зари до зари, от ранней весны до поздней осени. Трудом не наказывают, а организуют его на основе личностного интереса, последовательно усложняя (малыши собирают грибы и ягоды, подростки работают в теплицах и на фермах, старшеклассники – в поле и на машинах).

Позиция педагога: жить вместе с детьми, трудясь вместе с ними, радуясь общению, природе, труду, жизни.

Позиция детей: выступая членом единого коллектива, быть свободным в выборе трудовой деятельности как средстве самореализации.